Formal written connectives and postpositional phrases
C1 격식 문어 연결 -(으)며·-(으)므로·-고자·-에 따라 64 / 68
In short
Formal Korean writing swaps every everyday connective for a higher-register twin: -고 becomes -(으)며, -(으)니까 becomes -(으)므로, -(으)려고 becomes -고자, and 때문에 becomes -(으)로 인해. The meaning is unchanged - only the register rises. Beside these sit noun-based postpositional phrases such as -에 따라 (“according to, as X changes”), and all of it rides on the 한다체 sentence endings, never with 요.
The rule
Step 1 - Swap the connective, keep the meaning
The spine of formal register is a set of one-for-one substitutions. You already know the spoken version; writing just raises it.
- -(으)며 = written -고 (listing “and”) and -(으)면서 (simultaneity “while”). After a vowel stem -며, after a 받침 stem -으며, ㄹ-stem keeps ㄹ + -며: 가다 -> 가며 (gamyeo), 먹다 -> 먹으며 (meogeumyeo), 살다 -> 살며 (salmyeo).
- -(으)므로 = written -(으)니까 / -아서 (reason “because, therefore”): 가다 -> 가므로 (gameuro), 좋다 -> 좋으므로 (joeumeuro). Keep it apart from -(으)ㅁ으로(써) (“by means of”), which is a different word.
- -기에 = a slightly more subjective written reason, attaching straight to the stem: 좋다 -> 좋기에 (jokie), 먹다 -> 먹기에 (meokgie).
- -고자 = written -(으)려고 (purpose “in order to, intending to”), usually -고자 하다: 밝히다 -> 밝히고자 하다 (balkigoja hada, intend to clarify). It never carries -았/었- itself (*갔고자) - past intention rides on the main verb, 밝히고자 했다.
Step 2 - Contrast and addition
- -(으)ㄴ/는 반면(에) and -(으)ㄴ/는 데 반해 = “whereas, in contrast”: 편리하다 -> 편리한 반면에 (pyeollihan banmyeone), 가다 -> 가는 데 반해 (ganeun de banhae). 반면 and 데 are nouns, so they take a space.
- -(으)ㄹ뿐더러 = “not only … (but also)”, a single ending written with no space: 좋다 -> 좋을뿐더러 (joeulppundeoreo).
- -(으)ㄹ 뿐만 아니라 = the same “not only” idea, but here 뿐 is a bound noun, so it takes a space: 적다 -> 적을 뿐만 아니라 (jeogeul ppunman anira); after a noun the particle form attaches: 학생뿐만 아니라 (haksaengppunman anira).
Step 3 - Postpositional phrases on a noun
These behave like heavy particles: a noun (or a -(으)ㅁ nominalized clause) plus a fixed phrase.
- 에 따라(서) = “according to / as X changes”: 규정에 따라 (gyujeonge ttara), 소득이 증가함에 따라 (sodeugi jeunggahame ttara).
- (으)로 인해(서) = “due to, caused by”: 사고로 인해 (sagoro inhae), 지진으로 인해 (jijineuro inhae).
- 에 의해(서) = agentive “by” (formal passive); 에 의하면 = evidential “according to (a source)”: 법에 의해 (beobe uihae), 보도에 의하면 (bodo-e uihamyeon).
- 에도 불구하고 = “despite”, on a noun or -(으)ㅁ: 반대에도 불구하고 (bandaee-do bulguhago), 노력했음에도 불구하고 (noryeokhaesseume-do bulguhago).
Step 4 - 바 and instant -자
- -(으)ㄴ 바 (bound noun 바, spaced) = “the fact/thing that”: 조사한 바에 따르면 (josahan bae ttareumyeon, according to what was investigated). The fused ending -(으)ㄴ/는바 (no space) means “since, as”: 시간이 부족한바 (sigani bujokhanba, as time is short).
- -자 = instant “as soon as / upon” (the written counterpart of -자마자), attached to the bare stem, which stays bare even when the event is past: 발표가 끝나자 (balpyoga kkeunnaja, the moment the presentation ended), never *끝났자. The other written connectives are the opposite - -(으)며 / -(으)므로 / -기에 take -았/었- normally (왔으며 wasseumyeo, 젖었으므로 jeojeosseumeuro, 좋았기에 joatgie). Do not confuse it with the propositive -자 (“let’s”).
Step 5 - Sentence adverbs, on top of 한다체
Formal paragraphs link sentences with adverbs, not spoken conjunctions: 및 (mit, joins nouns), 또한 (ttohan), 아울러 (aulleo), 그러나 (geureona), 따라서 (ttaraseo), 한편 (hanpyeon), 반면 (banmyeon), 즉 (jeuk). All of this rides on 한다체 endings (간다, -았다, -(으)ㄹ 것이다) and the -(으)ㅁ noun style - never mix in the polite 요.
Forms & patterns
Allomorphs of the -(으) connectives (chosen by the actual 받침):
| Ending | After vowel stem | After 받침 stem | After ㄹ-stem (ㄹ kept) |
|---|---|---|---|
| -(으)며 | 가다 -> 가며 (gamyeo) | 먹다 -> 먹으며 (meogeumyeo) | 살다 -> 살며 (salmyeo) |
| -(으)므로 | 가다 -> 가므로 (gameuro) | 좋다 -> 좋으므로 (joeumeuro) | 살다 -> 살므로 (salmeuro) |
| -(으)ㄹ뿐더러 | 싸다 -> 쌀뿐더러 (ssalppundeoreo) | 좋다 -> 좋을뿐더러 (joeulppundeoreo) | 살다 -> 살뿐더러 (salppundeoreo) |
| -고자 / -기에 (no 으-form) | 가다 -> 가고자 / 가기에 (gagoja / gagie) | 먹다 -> 먹고자 / 먹기에 (meokgoja / meokgie) | 살다 -> 살고자 / 살기에 (salgoja / salgie) |
Master mapping: spoken form -> written equivalent -> register:
| Function | Spoken | Written | Typical register |
|---|---|---|---|
| Listing “and” | -고 | -(으)며 / 및 (nouns) | 뉴스·논문·공문 |
| Simultaneity “while” | -(으)면서 | -(으)며 | 논문·소설 |
| Reason “because” | -(으)니까 / -아서 | -(으)므로 / -기에 | 논문·공문 |
| Purpose “in order to” | -(으)려고 | -고자 | 공문·논문 |
| Result “so, therefore” | 그래서 | 따라서 | all |
| Contrast “whereas” | -는데 / 반대로 | -(으)ㄴ/는 반면(에) / 한편 | 뉴스·논문 |
| Cause “due to” | 때문에 | -(으)로 인해(서) | 뉴스·공문 |
| ”as soon as” | -자마자 | -자 | 논문·소설 |
| Concession “despite” | -는데도 / -지만 | -(으)ㅁ에도 불구하고 | 공문·논문 |
| ”that is, namely” | 그러니까 | 즉 | all |
Postpositional (noun-based) phrases:
| Phrase | Attaches to | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| 에 따라(서) | Noun / -(으)ㅁ | according to / as X changes | 규정에 따라 (gyujeonge ttara) |
| (으)로 인해(서) | Noun | due to, caused by | 사고로 인해 (sagoro inhae) |
| 에 의해(서) | Noun | by (agent) | 법에 의해 (beobe uihae) |
| 에 의하면 | Noun | according to (a source) | 보도에 의하면 (bodo-e uihamyeon) |
| 에도 불구하고 | Noun / -(으)ㅁ | despite | 반대에도 불구하고 (bandaee-do bulguhago) |
| -(으)ㄴ 바 | Verb (modifier) | the fact that | 조사한 바 (josahan ba) |
Sentence adverbs and their spoken twins:
| Adverb | Meaning | Spoken twin |
|---|---|---|
| 및 (mit) | and (joins nouns) | 그리고 / 와·과 |
| 또한 (ttohan) | also, moreover | 그리고, 게다가 |
| 아울러 (aulleo) | in addition, together with | 그리고 |
| 그러나 (geureona) | however | 하지만, 그렇지만 |
| 따라서 (ttaraseo) | therefore | 그래서, 그러니까 |
| 한편 (hanpyeon) | meanwhile, on the other hand | 그런데 |
| 반면(에) (banmyeon(e)) | whereas, by contrast | 반대로 |
| 즉 (jeuk) | that is, namely | 다시 말해 |
Examples
- 이 제품은 값이 싸며 품질도 좋다. (I jepumeun gapsi ssamyeo pumjildo jota.) - This product is cheap and its quality is good too.
- 자료가 충분하므로 결론을 내릴 수 있다. (Jaryoga chungbunhameuro gyeollon-eul naeril su itda.) - Since the data is sufficient, we can draw a conclusion.
- 본 보고서는 문제의 원인을 밝히고자 한다. (Bon bogoseoneun munjeui wonineul balkigoja handa.) - This report intends to clarify the cause of the problem.
- 소득이 증가함에 따라 소비도 늘어난다. (Sodeugi jeunggahame ttara sobido neureonanda.) - As income increases, consumption also grows.
- 폭우로 인해 도로가 막혔다. (Poguro inhae doroga makhyeotda.) - Due to the heavy rain, the road was blocked.
- 정부 발표에 의하면 물가가 안정되고 있다. (Jeongbu balpyoe uihamyeon mulgaga anjeongdoego itda.) - According to the government announcement, prices are stabilizing.
- 도시는 편리한 반면에 물가가 비싸다. (Dosineun pyeollihan banmyeone mulgaga bissada.) - The city is convenient, whereas the cost of living is high.
- 발표가 끝나자 청중이 질문을 쏟아냈다. (Balpyoga kkeunnaja cheongjung-i jilmuneul ssodanaetda.) - The moment the presentation ended, the audience poured out questions.
- 여러 번 경고했음에도 불구하고 사고가 반복된다. (Yeoreo beon gyeong-gohaesseume-do bulguhago sagoga banbokdoenda.) - Despite repeated warnings, accidents keep recurring.
- 이 방법은 비용이 적을 뿐만 아니라 효과도 크다. (I bangbeobeun biyong-i jeogeul ppunman anira hyogwado keuda.) - This method is not only low-cost but also highly effective.
Common mistakes
- 성적이 좋음으로 상을 받았다. (Seongjeogi joeumeuro sang-eul badatda.) -> 성적이 좋으므로 상을 받았다. (Seongjeogi joeumeuro sang-eul badatda.) - Reason is -(으)므로; the look-alike -(으)ㅁ으로(써) means “by means of”. They sound alike but spell differently, so pick by meaning.
- 책을 읽며 메모했다. (Chaegeul ingmyeo memohaetda.) -> 책을 읽으며 메모했다. (Chaegeul ilgeumyeo memohaetda.) - A 받침 stem needs -으며; bare -며 is only for vowel and ㄹ stems.
- 규정을 따라 처리한다. (Gyujeong-eul ttara cheorihanda.) -> 규정에 따라 처리한다. (Gyujeonge ttara cheorihanda.) - The fixed connective phrase is Noun + 에 따라, not 을/를.
- 비가 왔다 및 바람이 불었다. (Biga watda mit barami bureotda.) -> 비가 왔으며 바람이 불었다. (Biga wasseumyeo barami bureotda.) - 및 joins only nouns (교육 및 연구), never two clauses; use -고 / -(으)며 to join clauses.
- 신속할뿐만아니라 정확하다. (Sinsokhalppunmananira jeonghwakhada.) -> 신속할 뿐만 아니라 정확하다. (Sinsokhal ppunman anira jeonghwakhada.) - Here 뿐 is a bound noun, so -(으)ㄹ 뿐만 아니라 is spaced; only the fused ending -(으)ㄹ뿐더러 is written solid.
Tips
- Learn the swap table, not new grammar. Formal writing is mostly your spoken connectives promoted: -고 -> -(으)며, -(으)니까 -> -(으)므로, -(으)려고 -> -고자, -자마자 -> -자. Meaning identical, register up.
- -(으)며 does double duty. It lists (“and”) when the clauses are separate facts and marks simultaneity (“while”) when one subject does two things at once - 웃으며 말했다 (useumyeo malhaetda, said with a smile). Context disambiguates.
- Spacing tells 의존명사 from 어미. When 바/뿐 means “the fact” or “only”, it is a bound noun and takes a space (조사한 바, 좋을 뿐만 아니라); when it fuses into an ending it does not (검토한바, 좋을뿐더러).
- These ride on 한다체. A formal passage is 한다체 sentence endings (간다, -았다, -(으)ㄹ 것이다) plus -(으)ㅁ nominalization plus these connectives - and never the polite 요. See lesson 58.