In short

Chinese has one set of personal pronouns - 我 (wǒ, I/me), 你 (nǐ, you), 他/她/它 (tā, he/she/it) - and you make any of them plural just by adding 们 (men): 我们 (wǒmen, we). Pronouns never change for subject or object, and never conjugate. To say “A and B” you link two nouns with 和 (hé, and) - but 和 joins nouns only, never two verbs or two sentences.

The rule

Step 1 - Learn the six pronouns (one form does everything)

There is no I vs me, no he vs him. 我 is both “I” and “me”; 你 is subject and object alike:

• 我看你。 (Wǒ kàn nǐ.) - I see you.
• 你看我。 (Nǐ kàn wǒ.) - You see me.

The full set: 我 (wǒ) I/me, 你 (nǐ) you, 您 (nín) you, polite, 他 (tā) he/him, 她 (tā) she/her, 它 (tā) it. Note that 他、她、它 are all pronounced tā - you only choose the character when you write.

Use 您 (nín) to address one older person, a customer, or a stranger you want to respect. It is the polite singular “you”.

Step 2 - Make it plural with 们

Add the suffix 们 (men, neutral tone) to a pronoun to pluralise it - the pronoun itself does not change:

Pronoun + 们 -> 我们 (wǒmen) we, 你们 (nǐmen) you all, 他们 (tāmen) they.

For a mixed-gender group, use 他们; use 她们 only when everyone is female. 们 attaches to people, so you also see it on human nouns (朋友们 péngyoumen friends, 老师们 lǎoshīmen teachers), but almost never on things.

Step 3 - 我们 or 咱们?

Both mean “we”, but 咱们 (zánmen) is inclusive - it always includes the person you are talking to (“you and I”). 我们 may or may not include the listener. When in doubt, 我们 is always safe.

• 咱们走吧。 (Zánmen zǒu ba.) - Let’s go (you and me together).

Step 4 - Join two nouns with 和

The pattern is simply Noun + 和 + Noun:

• 咖啡和茶 (kāfēi hé chá) - coffee and tea
• 你和我 (nǐ hé wǒ) - you and I

Two colloquial and formal cousins say the same thing: spoken 跟 (gēn) and written 与 (yǔ). For three or more items, put the enumeration comma 、 between items and 和 before the last one only: A、B 和 C.

Step 5 - 和 joins NOUNS, never clauses or verbs

This is the rule that trips up every English speaker. English “and” links anything - nouns, verbs, whole sentences. 和 links only nouns and pronouns. To connect two actions or two statements, Chinese does not use 和; it uses sequence words like 然后 (ránhòu, then), an adverb like 也 (yě, also), or simply a comma. So I got up and ate is 我起床，然后吃饭 - never 我起床和吃饭.

Forms & patterns

The pronoun paradigm:

The three ways to say “and” (between nouns):

Joins nouns, not clauses:

Examples

• 你和我都很忙。 (Nǐ hé wǒ dōu hěn máng.) - You and I are both busy.
• 他和她是朋友。 (Tā hé tā shì péngyou.) - He and she are friends.
• 我们是中国人。 (Wǒmen shì Zhōngguórén.) - We are Chinese.
• 他们是同事。 (Tāmen shì tóngshì.) - They are colleagues.
• 您喝茶吗？ (Nín hē chá ma?) - Would you like some tea? (polite)
• 咱们走吧。 (Zánmen zǒu ba.) - Let’s go (you and me).
• 我喜欢咖啡和茶。 (Wǒ xǐhuan kāfēi hé chá.) - I like coffee and tea.
• 爸爸、妈妈和我一起吃饭。 (Bàba, māma hé wǒ yīqǐ chīfàn.) - Dad, Mom, and I eat together.

Common mistakes

• 我起床和吃早饭。 -> 我起床，然后吃早饭。 - 和 links nouns, not two actions; for a sequence of verbs use 然后 (ránhòu, then) or just a comma.
• 他累和我累。 -> 他累，我也累。 - never join two clauses with 和; use 也 (yě, also) or separate them with a comma.
• 爸爸和妈妈和我 -> 爸爸、妈妈和我 - with three or more items, use 、 between them and 和 only before the last, not 和 after every noun.
• 您们请坐。 -> 你们请坐。 - 您 has no standard plural (您们 is nonstandard); the polite plural falls back to 你们 or 各位 (gèwèi, everyone).
• 五个老师们 -> 五个老师 - do not add 们 when a number already marks plural; 们 and a counted quantity are mutually exclusive.

Tips

• 他 / 她 / 它 sound identical - all tā. You never hear the difference; you only pick the character when writing (and 他 covers a mixed group).
• Pronouns never inflect. There is no me, him, us: 我看你 / 你看我 uses one form for subject and object. Nothing to memorise here - that’s the good news of Chinese grammar.
• 和 = “and” only between nouns. If the English “and” sits between two verbs or two sentences, delete 和 and reach for 然后, 也, or a comma instead.
• Register ladder: default to 和 (hé); use 跟 (gēn) in casual talk, 与 (yǔ) in formal writing. On the Mainland 和 is read hé (you may hear it as hàn in Taiwan - same character).

In short

是 (shì) is the Chinese “to be” that equates two nouns: A 是 B means “A is B.” Put it between the subject and a noun that names or classifies it (我是学生 - “I am a student”), and negate it with 不是. Remember one thing above all: 是 links nouns, never adjectives.

The rule

是 (shì) is the equative verb “to be.” It stands between two noun phrases and says that the first one is - or belongs to the category of - the second. This is the sentence pattern Chinese grammar calls the 「是」字句 (shì zì jù, “是 sentence”).

Pattern: Subject + 是 + noun phrase.

• Step 1 - Start with a noun or pronoun as the subject: 我 (wǒ, “I”), 他 (tā, “he”), 这 (zhè, “this”).
• Step 2 - Add 是 (shì).
• Step 3 - Finish with the noun phrase that identifies or classifies the subject - a role, a nationality, a name, or a kind of thing.

我是学生。 (Wǒ shì xuéshēng.) - “I am a student.”

The noun phrase after 是 can be a bare noun (学生, “student”), a nationality (中国人, “Chinese person”), a name or title (王老师, “Teacher Wang”), or a possessive with 的 (我的书, “my book”).

Four facts do most of the work:

• No conjugation. 是 is identical for every person, number, and time. Chinese verbs never change shape, so 我是 / 你是 / 他们是 are all just 是. Whether the meaning is past, present, or future comes from context or a time word, not from the verb.
• 是 links NOUNS, not adjectives. “I am a student” ends in a noun, so you use 是: 我是学生. But “I am tall” ends in an adjective, which drops 是 entirely and takes 很 (hěn) instead: 我很高 (Wǒ hěn gāo) - never 我是高. That adjective pattern belongs to a later lesson; here, only reach for 是 when a noun follows.
• Negation is 不是. Put 不 (bù) directly before 是: 我不是老师 (Wǒ bù shì lǎoshī, “I am not a teacher”). Never negate 是 with 没 (méi). Note the pronunciation: 不 is toned bù on its own, but before the 4th-tone 是 it shifts up to bú, so 不是 is said bú shì.
• 是 is a linker, not “there is / at.” It equates two nouns; it does not express existence (“there is a book”) or location (“I am at home”). Those use 有 (yǒu) and 在 (zài), covered in their own lesson.

To reply to a 是 question, agree with 是 or 是的 (shì de, “Yes / That’s right”) and disagree with 不是 (“No”).

Forms & patterns

是 does not change for the subject - one form fits all:

Affirmative, negative, and short answers:

Examples

• 我是学生。 (Wǒ shì xuéshēng.) - I am a student.
• 你是老师。 (Nǐ shì lǎoshī.) - You are a teacher.
• 他是我的朋友。 (Tā shì wǒ de péngyou.) - He is my friend.
• 我们是中国人。 (Wǒmen shì Zhōngguó rén.) - We are Chinese.
• 这是水。 (Zhè shì shuǐ.) - This is water.
• 今天是星期一。 (Jīntiān shì xīngqīyī.) - Today is Monday.
• 我不是医生。 (Wǒ bù shì yīshēng.) - I am not a doctor.
• 他不是美国人。 (Tā bù shì Měiguó rén.) - He is not American.
• 这是我的书。 (Zhè shì wǒ de shū.) - This is my book.
• 她是王老师。 (Tā shì Wáng lǎoshī.) - She is Teacher Wang.

Common mistakes

• 我是高。 -> 我很高。 (Wǒ hěn gāo.) - An adjective never takes 是; use 很 (or another degree adverb) with it. 是 links nouns only.
• 我没是学生。 -> 我不是学生。 (Wǒ bù shì xuéshēng.) - Negate 是 with 不, never 没. 没 is for 有 and completed actions.
• 我学生。 -> 我是学生。 - Two nouns must be joined by 是. Do not model this on the adjective pattern (我很高), which is the one that has no verb.
• 我是家。 -> 我在家。 (Wǒ zài jiā.) - “To be at a place” is 在, not 是. 是 equates nouns; it does not mark location.

Tips

• No conjugation, ever. 是 is the same for 我 / 你 / 他 / 我们 and for past, present, and future alike. Learn one word and you have them all.
• “A thing” -> 是, “a quality” -> 很. If the word after the subject is a noun (a student, a doctor, Chinese), use 是; if it is an adjective (tall, tired, good), drop 是 and use 很. This is the single most common 是 error for English speakers.
• Say 不是 as bú shì. 不 is toned bù by itself, but before the 4th-tone 是 it rises to bú. The character is written the same; only the tone shifts.
• Two different 是. The 是 here just equates two nouns. A separate structure, 是……的, uses 是 to spotlight when, where, or how something happened - do not mix the two up.

In short

The particle 的 (de, neutral tone) links a describer to the thing it describes, and the describer always comes first: 我的书 (wǒ de shū, “my book”), 老师的车 (lǎoshī de chē, “the teacher’s car”), 中国的茶 (Zhōngguó de chá, “Chinese tea”). One little word does the work of English “‘s”, “of”, and the link between an adjective and its noun.

The rule

Chinese has no separate possessive endings and no adjective agreement. To attach a modifier to a noun you use one fixed pattern:

Modifier + 的 + Noun

Everything to the left of 的 describes the noun on the right. This order is the opposite of English “of”: you say the owner or quality before the thing.

Possession: owner + 的 + thing

Put a pronoun or a noun in front of 的:

• 我的手机 (wǒ de shǒujī) - my phone
• 你的名字 (nǐ de míngzi) - your name
• 老师的书 (lǎoshī de shū) - the teacher’s book
• 朋友的爸爸 (péngyou de bàba) - a friend’s father

To ask “whose”, use 谁的 (shéi de): 这是谁的？ (Zhè shì shéi de? “Whose is this?”).

Attribute by a noun: origin, material, type

A noun before 的 tells you what kind of thing it is - where it is from, what it is made of, what it belongs to:

• 中国的茶 (Zhōngguó de chá) - Chinese tea / China’s tea
• 木头的桌子 (mùtou de zhuōzi) - a wooden table
• 今天的报纸 (jīntiān de bàozhǐ) - today’s newspaper

Attribute by an adjective

An adjective can also sit before 的 to describe the noun:

• 红的花 (hóng de huā) - red flower(s)
• 贵的东西 (guì de dōngxi) - expensive things
• 很好的人 (hěn hǎo de rén) - a very good person

Keep 的 whenever the adjective carries a degree adverb such as 很 (hěn, “very”) or 非常 (fēicháng, “extremely”): you must say 很大的房子 (hěn dà de fángzi, “a very big house”).

When 的 is dropped

Step 1 - Close relationships. With family members, your home, and a group you belong to, native speakers normally leave 的 out: 我妈妈 (wǒ māma, “my mom”), 你家 (nǐ jiā, “your home”), 我们学校 (wǒmen xuéxiào, “our school”).

Step 2 - Tight monosyllabic adjective + noun. A single-syllable adjective often bonds straight onto the noun with no 的: 好人 (hǎo rén, “good person”), 新书 (xīn shū, “a new book”), 大城市 (dà chéngshì, “a big city”).

Forms & patterns

Possessive pronouns (pronoun + 的)

What can go before 的

Keep 的 or drop 的?

Examples

• 这是我的书。 (Zhè shì wǒ de shū.) - This is my book.
• 老师的车很贵。 (Lǎoshī de chē hěn guì.) - The teacher’s car is very expensive.
• 我喜欢中国的茶。 (Wǒ xǐhuan Zhōngguó de chá.) - I like Chinese tea.
• 这是谁的手机？ (Zhè shì shéi de shǒujī?) - Whose phone is this?
• 她有一个红的书包。 (Tā yǒu yí gè hóng de shūbāo.) - She has a red backpack.
• 木头的桌子很重。 (Mùtou de zhuōzi hěn zhòng.) - The wooden table is heavy.
• 我妈妈是老师。 (Wǒ māma shì lǎoshī.) - My mother is a teacher.
• 我们学校很大。 (Wǒmen xuéxiào hěn dà.) - Our school is very big.
• 那本贵的书是他的。 (Nà běn guì de shū shì tā de.) - That expensive book is his.
• 你的名字很好听。 (Nǐ de míngzi hěn hǎotīng.) - Your name sounds nice.

Common mistakes

• 这是我书。 -> 这是我的书。 (Zhè shì wǒ de shū.) - possessing an ordinary object needs 的 between the owner and the noun.
• 我喜欢茶中国。 -> 我喜欢中国的茶。 (Wǒ xǐhuan Zhōngguó de chá.) - the modifier plus 的 always comes before the noun, never after it like English “of”.
• 这是很贵车。 -> 这是很贵的车。 (Zhè shì hěn guì de chē.) - once an adjective carries 很 / 非常, you must keep 的 before the noun.
• 这本书是我。 -> 这本书是我的。 (Zhè běn shū shì wǒ de.) - “mine” is 我的 with the noun understood; bare 我 means “me”, a person.
• 我的爸爸很忙。 -> 我爸爸很忙。 (Wǒ bàba hěn máng.) - with family and other close relations 的 is normally dropped; keeping it sounds stiff.

Tips

• Think backwards from English “of”: the describer comes first, then 的, then the thing - 中国的茶 is literally “China-’s tea”, not “tea of China”.
• One particle covers three English jobs: 我的 (my), 老师的 (‘s / genitive), 木头的 (adjective-like “wooden”) all use the same 的.
• Drop 的 for family, home, your group (我妈妈, 你家, 我们班) and for short adjective + noun pairs (好人, 新书). Keep it whenever an adverb of degree is present: 很好的朋友 (hěn hǎo de péngyou, “a very good friend”).
• When the noun is already clear you can leave it off and let 的 stand for ”…‘s one”: 这是我的。 (Zhè shì wǒ de. “This is mine.”). The fuller “the … one” pattern is covered in Lesson 32.

In short

Chinese numbers are strictly regular: build any number from ten digits plus a few place-words (十 shí ten, 百 bǎi hundred, 千 qiān thousand, 万 wàn ten-thousand). Two things surprise English speakers: the number “two” has two forms - 二 èr for counting and 两 liǎng before a thing - and big numbers are grouped by ten-thousand (万), not by thousand.

The rule

There is no plural, no case, no agreement. A number is just digits and place-words snapped together in the same order you would read them aloud.

Step 1 - Learn the ten digits 0-10. These are the atoms of everything else (full list in the table below): 零 líng 0, 一 yī 1, 二 èr 2 … 九 jiǔ 9, 十 shí 10.

Step 2 - Build 11-99 from 十.

• Teens (11-19) = 十 + unit: 十一 shí yī (11), 十五 shí wǔ (15), 十九 shí jiǔ (19). Note 10 by itself is just 十, never 一十.
• Tens (20, 30 …) = unit + 十: 二十 èr shí (20), 三十 sān shí (30), 九十 jiǔ shí (90).
• In between = unit + 十 + unit: 二十五 èr shí wǔ (25), 九十九 jiǔ shí jiǔ (99).

Step 3 - Add the big place-words. For hundreds and up, say multiplier + place-word, then keep chaining from the largest place down to the smallest: 三百 sān bǎi (300), 五千 wǔ qiān (5,000), 两万 liǎng wàn (20,000). Unlike 十, the words 百 / 千 / 万 always need a multiplier in front: 100 is 一百 yī bǎi (never bare 百), 1,000 is 一千, 10,000 is 一万.

Step 4 - Group by 万, not by thousand. This is the big-number trap. English commas cut a number every 3 digits (thousand, million, billion); Chinese cuts every 4 digits, at 万. So there is no single word for “million” - a million is 一百万 yī bǎi wàn (“a hundred ten-thousands”). The next fresh place-word after 万 is 亿 yì = 100,000,000 (a hundred million). To read a big number, mentally re-comma it into groups of four from the right.

Step 5 - Fill internal gaps with 零. When a number has a zero inside it, you must say 零 líng as a placeholder: 一百零五 yī bǎi líng wǔ (105), 一千零一 yī qiān líng yī (1,001). A whole run of consecutive zeros is covered by a single 零: 一千零五 yī qiān líng wǔ (1,005). Zeros at the end are simply dropped: 150 is 一百五十 yī bǎi wǔ shí, with no 零.

Step 6 - Choose 二 or 两 for “two”. Both mean 2, but they are not interchangeable:

• Use 二 èr for counting, arithmetic, and any digit sitting in the tens or ones slot of a number: 二 (2), 十二 (12), 二十 (20), 二十二 (22).
• Use 两 liǎng for “two of something” - directly before a measure word (两个 liǎng ge, “two [of them]”) and before the big units 千 / 万 / 亿 (两千, 两万). The full number + measure + noun pattern belongs to Measure words (classifiers); here just remember that the “2” in front of a measure word is 两, not 二.
• Before 百, both are fine: 二百 or 两百 (200).

Forms & patterns

The ten digits:

Place-words and the ten-thousand ladder (note where English and Chinese words fall):

二 vs 两 at a glance:

Examples

• 一、二、三，我们开始。 (Yī, èr, sān, wǒmen kāishǐ.) - One, two, three, let’s begin.
• 二十加二十是四十。 (Èr shí jiā èr shí shì sì shí.) - Twenty plus twenty is forty.
• 一年有三百六十五天。 (Yī nián yǒu sān bǎi liù shí wǔ tiān.) - A year has three hundred sixty-five days.
• 一百零五。 (Yī bǎi líng wǔ.) - One hundred and five.
• 一千零一夜。 (Yī qiān líng yī yè.) - One Thousand and One Nights.
• 一万有四个零。 (Yī wàn yǒu sì ge líng.) - Ten thousand has four zeros.
• 中国有十四亿人。 (Zhōngguó yǒu shí sì yì rén.) - China has one point four billion people.
• 我要两个。 (Wǒ yào liǎng ge.) - I want two (of them).
• 两百人还是二百人都行。 (Liǎng bǎi rén háishì èr bǎi rén dōu xíng.) - Whether you say liǎng bǎi or èr bǎi for two hundred people, either is fine.

Common mistakes

• 二个 -> 两个 (liǎng ge, two of them) - right before a measure word “two” is always 两, never 二.
• 两十 -> 二十 (èr shí, 20) - inside a number the “2” digit is 二; 两 never fills the tens or ones slot.
• 一百五 (meaning 105) -> 一百零五 (yī bǎi líng wǔ, 105) - an internal zero needs 零; 一百五 is read as 150.
• 一千零零五 -> 一千零五 (yī qiān líng wǔ, 1,005) - one 零 covers a whole run of zeros, however many.
• 一百千 (calquing “one hundred thousand”) -> 十万 (shí wàn, 100,000) - Chinese has no “thousand” grouping above 千; count in 万.

Tips

• Re-comma big numbers by fours from the right, not threes. 1,234,567 regroups as 123,4567 = 一百二十三万四千五百六十七 - read the 万 group, say 万, then read the rest.
• Rule of thumb for “two”: 两 = “two things” (before a measure word or 千/万/亿); 二 = “the number 2” (counting, tens, ones, digits, math). 百 tolerates both.
• The tone of 一 shifts in speech (sandhi): it is yī on its own and when reciting digits, but becomes yì before a 1st, 2nd or 3rd tone (一百 yìbǎi, 一千 yìqiān) and yí before a 4th tone (一万 yíwàn, 一亿 yíyì). The character never changes; only the sound does.
• Reading digit strings like phone or room numbers, say each digit separately, keep 二 (not 两), and note that 一 is often pronounced yāo there so it is not misheard as 七 qī.

In short

In Chinese a number can never sit directly in front of a noun. You must slot a measure word (量词, liàngcí) between them: Number + Measure word + Noun, as in 三本书 (sān běn shū, three books). When you don’t know which measure word to use, the general-purpose 个 (gè) is a safe fallback.

The rule

English uses measure words only for uncountable stuff (“two cups of coffee”, “three sheets of paper”). Chinese uses one for every counted noun, countable or not. The frame is fixed:

Number + Measure word + Noun

• 三本书 (sān běn shū) = three books
• 一个人 (yí gè rén) = one person

Step 1 - the number. Choose the numeral (三 sān, 五 wǔ…).

Step 2 - the measure word. Each noun has a “natural” classifier tied to its shape or category, and you have to learn it together with the noun - much like grammatical gender in European languages. Books take 本 (běn), flat things take 张 (zhāng), long thin things take 条 (tiáo), and so on.

Step 3 - the noun. It comes last and never changes form (Chinese has no plural ending).

The general classifier 个. When a noun has no strong specific classifier, or when you simply forget which one to use, reach for 个 (gè). It is the workhorse for people (一个人 yí gè rén, one person) and countless everyday objects. Its citation tone is 4th (gè), but in normal speech it is usually said with a neutral tone (ge).

Two is 两, not 二, before a measure word. This is where the rule from the numbers lesson bites. “Two books” is 两本书 (liǎng běn shū), never 二本书. Any counted noun with a measure word takes 两 (liǎng); plain 二 (èr) is only for counting out loud, digits and ordinals.

一 shifts tone before the measure word. Written 一 is yī, but in a counted phrase it becomes yí before a 4th-tone measure word (一个 yí gè, 一辆 yí liàng) and yì before a 1st/2nd/3rd-tone one (一本 yì běn, 一张 yì zhāng). Say each as a fixed chunk.

Forms & patterns

The counting frame:

Common measure words to learn first:

Container words behave the same way: 瓶 (píng, bottle of) and 双 (shuāng, pair of) also slot in as measure words - 一瓶水 (yì píng shuǐ, a bottle of water), 一双鞋 (yì shuāng xié, a pair of shoes).

Examples

• 我有三本书。 (Wǒ yǒu sān běn shū.) - I have three books.
• 他们是两位老师。 (Tāmen shì liǎng wèi lǎoshī.) - They are two teachers.
• 桌子上有一只猫。 (Zhuōzi shàng yǒu yì zhī māo.) - There is a cat on the table.
• 我想喝一杯茶。 (Wǒ xiǎng hē yì bēi chá.) - I want to drink a cup of tea.
• 她有两条鱼。 (Tā yǒu liǎng tiáo yú.) - She has two fish.
• 教室里有五个学生。 (Jiàoshì lǐ yǒu wǔ ge xuésheng.) - There are five students in the classroom.
• 我买一张纸。 (Wǒ mǎi yì zhāng zhǐ.) - I am buying a sheet of paper.
• 爸爸有一辆车。 (Bàba yǒu yí liàng chē.) - Dad has a car.

Common mistakes

• 三书 -> 三本书 (sān běn shū) - a number can’t touch the noun; you must insert a measure word.
• 二本书 -> 两本书 (liǎng běn shū) - before a measure word “two” is 两 (liǎng), never 二 (èr).
• 一个书 -> 一本书 (yì běn shū) - 书 (shū, book) takes its own classifier 本; learn the specific one with the noun instead of defaulting to 个.
• 一只人 -> 一个人 (yí gè rén) - people take 个 (or polite 位); 只 is for animals.
• 两个纸 -> 两张纸 (liǎng zhāng zhǐ) - flat things like paper, tickets and tables take 张 (zhāng).

Tips

• When you genuinely don’t know the classifier, 个 (gè / ge) will always be understood - but the specific one sounds more natural, so memorise the pair (一本书, not just 书), the way you would learn a noun with its article.
• Match the classifier to shape or category: 张 (zhāng) for flat surfaces (paper, tickets, tables, beds), 条 (tiáo) for long floppy things (fish, roads, rivers, trousers), 本 (běn) for things you bind and flip through (books, notebooks).
• The 两-not-二 rule lives exactly here: any counted noun with a measure word uses 两 (liǎng). Pure numbers, phone digits and ordinals keep 二 (èr).
• Lock the 一 sandhi into chunks: yí before a 4th-tone measure word (一个 yí gè, 一辆 yí liàng), yì before the rest (一本 yì běn, 一张 yì zhāng).

In short

这 (zhè) = “this” (near), 那 (nà) = “that” (far), 哪 (nǎ) = “which”. When you point at a countable noun you cannot say 这书 - you must slot in a measure word: 这 + measure + noun (这本书 = this book). Add a number for more than one: 这两本书 (zhè liǎng běn shū) = these two books.

The rule

The demonstratives are 这 (zhè, “this”), 那 (nà, “that”) and 哪 (nǎ, “which”). Each does two different jobs.

Job 1 - stand alone as a pronoun (subject or topic), most often right before 是 (shì, “to be”). Here you use the bare word, with no measure word:

• 这是我的书。 (Zhè shì wǒ de shū.) - This is my book.
• 那不是问题。 (Nà bù shì wèntí.) - That’s not a problem.

Job 2 - point at a specific noun (a determiner, like English “this book”). Now a measure word is required between the demonstrative and the noun:

这 / 那 / 哪 + (Number) + Measure word + Noun

• 这本书 (zhè běn shū) = this book
• 那三个学生 (nà sān ge xuésheng) = those three students
• 哪个人 (nǎ ge rén) = which person

The measure word must match the noun (本 běn for bound volumes, 个 ge for people and general things, 张 zhāng for flat things). Which measure word to pick is the job of the previous lesson; here just remember that after a demonstrative pointing at a noun, one is always present.

Count of “one” drops 一. For a single item you normally omit 一: say 这本书, not 这一本书. Adding 一 (这一本书) is only for stressing “one single book”.

Plural group with 些. To point at several things without naming a number, use 些 (xiē, “some / several”): 这些 (zhèxiē) = these, 那些 (nàxiē) = those, 哪些 (nǎxiē) = which ones. So 这些书 (zhèxiē shū) = these books. Never put a number before 些.

Place words. Add 儿 (or 里) to make “here / there”: 这儿 / 这里 (zhèr / zhèlǐ) = here; 那儿 / 那里 (nàr / nàlǐ) = there. These behave like place nouns: 我在这儿 (wǒ zài zhèr) = I’m here. (The matching question word 哪儿 “where?” is covered in the questions lesson.)

Pronunciation. In careful, standard speech these are zhè / nà / nǎ. Casually, when a measure word follows, many speakers fuse them to zhèi / nèi / něi (这个 heard as zhèige). Both are correct; HSK and dictionaries use zhè / nà / nǎ.

Forms & patterns

The demonstrative paradigm:

How the slots fill:

Examples

• 这是我的手机。 (Zhè shì wǒ de shǒujī.) - This is my phone.
• 那本书很有意思。 (Nà běn shū hěn yǒuyìsi.) - That book is very interesting.
• 你要哪个？ (Nǐ yào nǎ ge?) - Which one do you want?
• 这两个苹果是你的。 (Zhè liǎng ge píngguǒ shì nǐ de.) - These two apples are yours.
• 我喜欢这件衣服。 (Wǒ xǐhuan zhè jiàn yīfu.) - I like this piece of clothing.
• 那些人都是老师。 (Nàxiē rén dōu shì lǎoshī.) - Those people are all teachers.
• 这儿有一家饭馆。 (Zhèr yǒu yì jiā fànguǎn.) - There’s a restaurant here.
• 这些字我不认识。 (Zhèxiē zì wǒ bù rènshi.) - I don’t recognize these characters.
• 哪些学生去中国？ (Nǎxiē xuésheng qù Zhōngguó?) - Which students are going to China?

Common mistakes

• 这书 -> 这本书 (zhè běn shū) - a demonstrative pointing at a noun needs a measure word; 这 cannot sit directly on most nouns.
• 这一个人 (for plain “this person”) -> 这个人 (zhè ge rén) - drop 一 for a single item; 这个 already means “this (one)”.
• 这些三本书 -> 这三本书 (zhè sān běn shū) - use 些 for an unspecified group OR a number + measure, never both. 些 already means “several”.
• 那本书好？ (meaning “which book is good?”) -> 哪本书好？ (nǎ běn shū hǎo?) - 那 (nà) = “that” (a statement); 哪 (nǎ) = “which” (a question).

Tips

• Fixed order inside the phrase: demonstrative -> number -> measure -> noun (这 + 三 + 本 + 书). Nothing slots in before the demonstrative.
• 那 (nà) vs 哪 (nǎ): 哪 has an extra 口 (mouth) on the left and asks “which?”; 那 just states “that”. Same shape - listen for the tone, falling nà vs dipping nǎ.
• Alone before 是, use no measure word: say 这是书 (zhè shì shū), not 这本是书. The measure word appears only when the demonstrative directly points at the noun.
• Colloquial fusion zhèi / nèi / něi (as in 这个 = zhèige) is everyday speech; stick with zhè / nà / nǎ for HSK and clear pronunciation.

In short

To say “X is [adjective]” in Mandarin you use no 是 (shì, to be): the adjective is itself the predicate, placed straight after the subject. But a bare adjective sounds like an unfinished comparison, so Chinese slots a small degree adverb in front of it. The default, all-purpose one is 很 (hěn), which here mostly just links - it does not really mean “very.” So “she is tall” is 她很高 (tā hěn gāo), literally “she [is] tall.”

The rule

Step 1 - Adjectives don’t take 是. A Mandarin stative adjective - 高 (gāo, tall), 好 (hǎo, good), 忙 (máng, busy), 贵 (guì, expensive) - already carries the meaning “to be [that quality].” It behaves like a verb, so it needs no linking 是. Saying 她是高 is like saying “she is is-tall.” The pattern is simply:

Subject + (degree adverb) + Adjective

Step 2 - A plain statement needs a degree adverb; the default is 很. A bare adjective on its own (她高) is not neutral - it feels contrastive, as if a comparison is coming (“she’s the taller one…”). To make a flat, complete “X is [adj]” statement, you put a degree adverb in front. The workhorse is 很 (hěn). Although its dictionary meaning is “very,” in this slot it is largely bleached: 我很好 (wǒ hěn hǎo) just means “I’m fine,” not “I’m very fine.” Think of 很 as the neutral glue that lets an adjective stand as a predicate.

Step 3 - Pick the adverb for the force you want. Once you know the slot, you swap 很 for a stronger or more colourful adverb:

• 很 (hěn) - the neutral default. Genuine emphasis comes from stressing it in speech.
• 非常 (fēicháng) - “very, extremely,” and it really means it: 非常忙 (fēicháng máng, extremely busy).
• 太…了 (tài…le) - “too,” usually excessive (a complaint) or, with warmth, “so…!”. It wraps the adjective and almost always closes with 了: 太贵了 (tài guì le, too expensive).
• 真 (zhēn) - “really,” a subjective exclamation: 你真好 (nǐ zhēn hǎo, you’re really kind).
• 挺…的 (tǐng…de) - “quite, pretty,” mild and colloquial; it normally closes with 的: 挺好的 (tǐng hǎo de, pretty good).

Step 4 - Tones to watch. 很 is 3rd tone (hěn). Before another 3rd-tone adjective the two 3rd tones collide, so 很好 is written hěn hǎo but said hén hǎo (the sandhi rule from [Tone sandhi (reading & pronunciation guide)XLINK). To negate an adjective you drop the adverb and use 不 before it (她不高, tā bù gāo, she isn’t tall); note that 不 becomes bú before a 4th tone, e.g. 不大 (bú dà). Negation is developed in Negation with 不 and 没(有).

Forms & patterns

Each degree adverb slots into the same predicate frame:

How the five adverbs differ in force and shape:

Examples

• 她很高。 (Tā hěn gāo.) - She is tall.
• 我很好。 (Wǒ hěn hǎo. - said wǒ hén hǎo.) - I’m fine.
• 今天很冷。 (Jīntiān hěn lěng.) - It’s cold today.
• 我很忙。 (Wǒ hěn máng.) - I’m busy.
• 这个菜非常好吃。 (Zhège cài fēicháng hǎochī.) - This dish is very tasty.
• 太贵了！ (Tài guì le!) - Too expensive!
• 你真好。 (Nǐ zhēn hǎo.) - You’re really kind.
• 这本书挺有意思的。 (Zhè běn shū tǐng yǒuyìsi de.) - This book is quite interesting.
• 中文不难。 (Zhōngwén bù nán.) - Chinese isn’t hard.

Common mistakes

• 她是高。 -> 她很高。 (Tā shì gāo -> Tā hěn gāo.) - An adjective is its own predicate; never link it with 是.
• 她高。 -> 她很高。 - A bare adjective sounds like an unfinished comparison. For a plain statement, add a degree adverb; 很 is the safe default.
• 太贵。 -> 太贵了。 - 太 almost always pairs with a closing 了; without it the sentence feels cut off.
• 挺好。 -> 挺好的。 - 挺 normally needs its closing 的 to sound complete.
• 我非常很忙。 -> 我非常忙。 - Use only one degree adverb; don’t stack 很 together with 非常 / 太 / 真.

Tips

• Treat 很 as neutral glue, not “very.” 我很好 = “I’m fine,” full stop. To actually emphasise, stress 很 in speech or reach for 非常.
• The tell-tale sign you need an adverb: a plain “X is [adj]” sentence. English hides the copula inside “is [adj]”; Chinese needs a filler in that spot, and 很 is the default filler.
• 太…了 and 挺…的 are two-part frames that wrap the adjective. Forgetting the closing 了 / 的 is the most common slip.
• For “-er / the most / a bit,” you leave this pattern: comparison (比, 更, 最) and the “a little” pair 有点儿 / 一点儿 belong to Comparison (比, 跟…一样, 更, 最).

In short

有 (yǒu) means “to have” and “there is/are”: Possessor + 有 + Thing (我有书, I have books) or Place + 有 + Thing (桌子上有书, there are books on the table). 在 (zài) is the verb “to be located at”: Thing + 在 + Place (他在家, he’s at home). Same scene, opposite order: 桌子上有书 introduces new books; 书在桌子上 tells you where known books are.

The rule

Two everyday verbs cover this whole lesson: 有 (yǒu) and 在 (zài).

有 (yǒu) has two jobs.

• Possession - Possessor + 有 + Thing. The subject is a person (or group) who owns something: 我有一辆车 (Wǒ yǒu yí liàng chē) = I have a car.
• Existence - Place + 有 + Thing. The subject is a place, and 有 means “there is / there are”: 桌子上有一本书 (Zhuōzi shàng yǒu yì běn shū) = There’s a book on the table. The thing that 有 introduces is new, indefinite information (a book, some people, a number of things) - so it takes 一/a number, not 这/那.

有 is never negated with 不. Its negation is 没(有), covered in Lesson 10.

在 (zài) is the location verb “to be (located) at / in”.

• Thing + 在 + Place. The subject is a specific, already-known thing, and 在 tells you where it is: 他在家 (Tā zài jiā) = He’s at home; 书在桌子上 (Shū zài zhuōzi shàng) = The book is on the table.

Place words. Both existence-有 and 在 need a genuine place expression after them. Proper places and 家 / 这儿 / 那儿 work as they are (在北京, 在家). But an ordinary object noun is not a place by itself - add a localizer such as 上 (shàng, on top) or 里 (lǐ, inside): 桌子上 (on the table), 包里 (in the bag), 房间里 (in the room). Bare 在桌子 is wrong; say 在桌子上.

Choosing 有 or 在 (the heart of the lesson).

• Step 1 - decide what is known. Are you introducing something new (“there’s a …”)? Or locating something already known (”… is at …”)?
• Step 2 - order it. New thing at a place -> Place + 有 + Thing. Known thing’s location -> Thing + 在 + Place.

The very same fact flips both subject and verb:

房间里有一台电视。 (there’s a TV in the room - introduces the TV) 电视在房间里。 (the TV is in the room - locates the known TV)

Forms & patterns

The three core patterns:

有 (existence) vs 在 (location) side by side:

Localizers - just enough to turn an object noun into a place:

Examples

• 我有一个哥哥。 (Wǒ yǒu yí ge gēge.) - I have an older brother.
• 他们有很多朋友。 (Tāmen yǒu hěn duō péngyou.) - They have a lot of friends.
• 桌子上有一本词典。 (Zhuōzi shàng yǒu yì běn cídiǎn.) - There’s a dictionary on the table.
• 教室里有很多学生。 (Jiàoshì lǐ yǒu hěn duō xuésheng.) - There are a lot of students in the classroom.
• 我家附近有一个超市。 (Wǒ jiā fùjìn yǒu yí ge chāoshì.) - There’s a supermarket near my home.
• 老师在教室里。 (Lǎoshī zài jiàoshì lǐ.) - The teacher is in the classroom.
• 你的手机在桌子上。 (Nǐ de shǒujī zài zhuōzi shàng.) - Your phone is on the table.
• 我们下午在家。 (Wǒmen xiàwǔ zài jiā.) - We’re home in the afternoon.
• 妈妈不在家。 (Māma bú zài jiā.) - Mom isn’t home.

Common mistakes

• 桌子上在一本书。 -> 桌子上有一本书。 (Zhuōzi shàng yǒu yì běn shū.) - “there is X at a place” uses 有 (Place + 有 + Thing), not 在.
• 书有桌子上。 -> 书在桌子上。 (Shū zài zhuōzi shàng.) - to say where a known thing is, the thing leads and you use 在; 有 would reverse subject and object.
• 书在桌子。 -> 书在桌子上。 (Shū zài zhuōzi shàng.) - a plain object noun isn’t a place; add a localizer (上 / 里 / 下) after it.
• 我是两个孩子。 -> 我有两个孩子。 (Wǒ yǒu liǎng ge háizi.) - “to have / possess” is 有; 是 (to be) can’t express possession.
• 我不有时间。 -> 我没有时间。 (Wǒ méiyǒu shíjiān.) - 有 is negated with 没, never 不; the full rules are in Lesson 10.

Tips

• Quick decision: introducing something new -> Place + 有 (“there is”); locating something known -> Thing + 在 (“it’s at”). The subject and the verb flip together.
• Rough shortcut: 有 pairs with “a / some”, 在 pairs with “the”. You say 桌子上有一本书 (a book), but for the known one you say 那本书在桌子上 (that book is on the table), not 有.
• Don’t confuse this 在 (main verb, followed by a place) with the 在 that marks an ongoing action and is followed by a verb (在看书, “is reading”). That different job is covered in Lesson 21.
• Negation preview: 有 -> 没有 (never 不有); 在 -> 不在 (不在家, “not home”). Note 不 becomes bú before 在 (bú zài). Full treatment in Lesson 10.

In short

Chinese has two negation words, and they are not interchangeable. Use 不 (bù) for habits, states, opinions and the future (“don’t / won’t”); use 没(有) (méiyǒu) to say an action did not happen (“didn’t / haven’t”). The verb 有 (yǒu, “to have”) has only one negative form - 没有 - and never takes 不.

The rule

Both negators go in the same slot: directly before the verb or adjective. Chinese never floats the negative after the verb the way English can. What changes is which word you pick, and the choice is about meaning, not just tense.

不 (bù) - the default negator. It negates:

• habits and general facts - 我不喝咖啡。 (Wǒ bù hē kāfēi.) = I don’t drink coffee.
• present and future intentions - 我明天不去。 (Wǒ míngtiān bù qù.) = I’m not going tomorrow.
• states and qualities (adjectives) - 今天不冷。 (Jīntiān bù lěng.) = Today isn’t cold.
• the verb 是 and modal verbs - 他不是老师。 (Tā bù shì lǎoshī.) = He isn’t a teacher; 我不想去。 (Wǒ bù xiǎng qù.) = I don’t want to go.

没(有) (méiyǒu) - the “it didn’t happen” negator. It negates:

• the completion of an action - the event did not take place - 昨天她没来。 (Zuótiān tā méi lái.) = Yesterday she didn’t come.
• the verb 有 itself (possession and existence) - 我没有钱。 (Wǒ méiyǒu qián.) = I have no money.

You can write it in full (没有) or drop the 有 before another verb (没来 = 没有来); before a noun (possession) you keep 没有. 没 is always méi (2nd tone) - no sandhi.

Step 1 - is it the verb 有? If yes, the negator is 没有. Full stop. 不有 does not exist in Mandarin.

Step 2 - did an action fail to happen (in the past, or “not yet”)? Use 没(有). For “not yet” add 还 (hái): 我还没吃饭。 (Wǒ hái méi chī fàn.) = I haven’t eaten yet.

Step 3 - everything else (habit, state, opinion, 是, modal, future refusal) uses 不.

Why 有 is special. 有 already means “there is / to possess” - a state, not an action that completes - so Mandarin locked its negative to 没有 and blocks 不 entirely. Learn 有 / 没有 as a fixed pair, the way you learned 是 / 不是.

One note on 了. Because 没 already says the action did not happen, you never keep the completion particle 了 with it (say 没去, not 没去了). How 了 works is the job of Completed-action 了 (verb + 了).

Tone sandhi on 不. Its citation tone is 4th (bù). Before another 4th-tone syllable it shifts to 2nd tone (bú): 不是 bú shì, 不去 bú qù, 不贵 bú guì. Before a 1st, 2nd or 3rd tone it stays bù: 不喝 bù hē, 不来 bù lái, 不好 bù hǎo. Say each pair as one chunk.

Forms & patterns

不 vs 没(有) at a glance:

Same verb, two negators, two meanings:

不 tone sandhi:

Examples

• 我不喝咖啡。 (Wǒ bù hē kāfēi.) - I don’t drink coffee.
• 他不是老师。 (Tā bù shì lǎoshī.) - He is not a teacher.
• 今天我不忙。 (Jīntiān wǒ bù máng.) - Today I’m not busy.
• 我不想去。 (Wǒ bù xiǎng qù.) - I don’t want to go.
• 我没有时间。 (Wǒ méiyǒu shíjiān.) - I don’t have time.
• 昨天她没来。 (Zuótiān tā méi lái.) - Yesterday she didn’t come.
• 我还没吃饭。 (Wǒ hái méi chī fàn.) - I haven’t eaten yet.
• 他没看那部电影。 (Tā méi kàn nà bù diànyǐng.) - He didn’t watch that movie.
• 这个不贵。 (Zhège bù guì.) - This one isn’t expensive.
• 我们没有孩子。 (Wǒmen méiyǒu háizi.) - We don’t have children.

Common mistakes

• 我不有钱。 -> 我没有钱。 (Wǒ méiyǒu qián.) - 有 is negated only by 没; 不有 does not exist in Mandarin.
• 他没是学生。 -> 他不是学生。 (Tā bù shì xuésheng.) - the verb 是 always takes 不, never 没.
• 昨天我不去。 (meaning “I didn’t go yesterday”) -> 昨天我没去。 (Zuótiān wǒ méi qù.) - a past action that did not happen needs 没, not 不.
• 我没高。 -> 我不高。 (Wǒ bù gāo.) - a state or quality (an adjective standing alone) is negated with 不, not 没.
• 我喝不咖啡。 -> 我不喝咖啡。 (Wǒ bù hē kāfēi.) - the negator goes before the verb, not after it.

Tips

• Quick test: is it an event in the past that failed to occur (or “not yet”)? Then 没. Everything else - habits, feelings, opinions, 是, “won’t” - is 不.
• 有 has exactly one negative: 没有. Memorize the pair 有 / 没有 as tightly as 是 / 不是, and you’ll never write 不有.
• English “not” is one word for every situation, so the 不 / 没 split is a genuine false-friend trap - always ask what kind of negation you mean before you pick.
• Because 没 means the action never happened, drop 了 with it: say 没去, not 没去了.

In short

To ask a yes/no question, take a plain statement and add 吗 (ma) at the very end - nothing else moves: 你是学生 (you are a student) -> 你是学生吗？(are you a student?). Other sentence-final particles color the mood instead: 呢 (ne) = “and you? / where is…?”, 吧 (ba) = a suggestion or a guess, 啊 (a) = warmth/exclamation, 嘛 (ma) = “it’s obvious”. All five are neutral tone and always sit last.

The rule

The single most important fact: Chinese does not reorder a sentence to ask a question. There is no “do/does”, no inversion. You keep the statement exactly as it stands and hang a particle on the end.

Step 1 - Yes/no question: Statement + 吗？

吗 (ma, neutral tone) turns any statement into a yes/no question.

Statement + 吗？

• 你是学生。 (Nǐ shì xuésheng.) - You are a student. -> 你是学生吗？ (Nǐ shì xuésheng ma?) - Are you a student?

The word order is identical; only 吗 is added. A 吗 question expects a yes or no answer, so do not put 吗 on a sentence that already contains a question word (谁 shéi “who”, 什么 shénme “what”, 哪 nǎ “which”) or an A-not-A form - those are separate question types owned by Question-word, A-not-A and alternative questions.

Answering has no all-purpose “yes/no”. Chinese answers by echoing the sentence’s own verb: 是 / 不是 (shì / bú shì), 有 / 没有 (yǒu / méiyǒu), 对 / 不对 (duì / bú duì). A one-word 是吗？(shì ma?) on its own means “Really? / Is that so?”.

Step 2 - 呢 (ne): “and you? / where is…?”

Two everyday jobs:

• Bounce a topic back. After a first full sentence, a bare noun + 呢 means “and X? / what about X?”: 我很好，你呢？ (Wǒ hěn hǎo, nǐ ne?) - I’m fine, and you?
• “Where is X?” A noun + 呢 with no other context asks where something has got to: 我的手机呢？ (Wǒ de shǒujī ne?) - Where’s my phone?

(呢 also tags an action in progress - 他睡觉呢 “he’s sleeping” - but that overlaps Ongoing actions (在/正在 and 着); stick to the two jobs above.)

Step 3 - 吧 (ba): suggestion or guess

吧 softens the sentence in one of two directions:

• Suggestion / soft command: 我们走吧！ (Wǒmen zǒu ba!) - Let’s go! It turns a bare order into an invitation.
• Supposition seeking confirmation: 你是老师吧？ (Nǐ shì lǎoshī ba?) - You’re a teacher, right? You already think so and just want it confirmed.

Contrast with 吗: 你是老师吗？ = a genuine question (no idea); 你是老师吧？ = “I’m fairly sure, confirm it”.

Step 4 - 啊 (a) and 嘛 (ma): flavor particles

• 啊 adds warmth, agreement or mild exclamation: 好啊！ (Hǎo a!) - Sure! / OK!; 是啊。 (Shì a.) - Yeah, that’s right. (In casual writing you may see the sound spelled out as 呀/哇/哪; the standard character is 啊.)
• 嘛 (ma, neutral tone) marks something as self-evident - “obviously, as you know”: 这很简单嘛！ (Zhè hěn jiǎndān ma!) - This is easy, obviously! Note the character: 嘛 ≠ the question particle 吗. Same sound, opposite job.

Forms & patterns

The five sentence-final particles at a glance (all neutral tone, all sit last):

Genuine question (吗) vs guess/suggestion (吧):

Answering a 吗 question - echo the verb, don’t reach for a “yes” word:

(不 is bù, but shifts to bú before a 4th-tone syllable: bú shì, bú qù - yet bù máng, because 忙 máng is 2nd tone.)

Examples

• 你是中国人吗？ (Nǐ shì Zhōngguó rén ma?) - Are you Chinese?
• 你饿吗？ (Nǐ è ma?) - Are you hungry?
• 你吃饭了吗？ (Nǐ chī fàn le ma?) - Have you eaten?
• 我很好，你呢？ (Wǒ hěn hǎo, nǐ ne?) - I’m fine, and you?
• 我的钥匙呢？ (Wǒ de yàoshi ne?) - Where are my keys?
• 我们喝茶吧。 (Wǒmen hē chá ba.) - Let’s have some tea.
• 你累了吧？ (Nǐ lèi le ba?) - You’re tired, aren’t you?
• 是啊，我也这么想。 (Shì a, wǒ yě zhème xiǎng.) - Yeah, I think so too.
• 这么贵？是吗？ (Zhème guì? Shì ma?) - That expensive? Really?

Common mistakes

• 你去哪儿吗？ -> 你去哪儿？ (Nǐ qù nǎr?) - a sentence that already has a question word (哪儿 nǎr, “where”) is already a question; 吗 makes a yes/no question, so never stack it on top of a question word.
• 你是不是老师吗？ -> 你是老师吗？ (or 你是不是老师？) - 吗 and A-not-A are two different ways to ask the same yes/no question. Pick one; never combine them.
• 你有车吗？——是。 -> ……——有。/ 没有。 - there is no all-purpose “yes”; answer by echoing the sentence’s own verb (有 -> 有 / 没有), not with 是.
• 这很简单吗！ (meaning “this is obviously easy!”) -> 这很简单嘛！ - 吗 (with 马) asks a question; the “as you know / obviously” particle is 嘛 (with 麻). Same sound, different character and job.
• 你累吗了？ -> 你累了吗？ (Nǐ lèi le ma?) - the question particle 吗 goes at the very end, after 了; nothing may follow it.

Tips

• 吗 is your one must-have question tool at A1: state the sentence, add 吗, done - no reordering, no auxiliary verb. If you master a single particle first, make it 吗.
• All five particles are neutral tone and strictly sentence-final - light, unstressed, right at the edge. Nothing ever comes after them.
• 吗 vs 嘛: 吗 = 口 + 马 asks a question (curious, rising); 嘛 = 口 + 麻 asserts the obvious (flat, “duh”). When in doubt, if you’re asking, it’s 吗.
• 呢 has two drill-worthy jobs: bounce-back 你呢？ (and you?) and lost-object 我的手机呢？ (where’s my phone?). Both are just noun/topic + 呢.

In short

Besides 吗, Chinese has three ways to ask a question, and none of them uses 吗. Drop a question word (谁 shéi “who”, 什么 shénme “what”, 哪儿 nǎr “where”, 几 jǐ “how many”, 怎么 zěnme “how”) into the exact slot where the answer will go and leave the word order alone: 你吃什么？ (Nǐ chī shénme?) = You eat what?. Or repeat the verb around 不: 你去不去？ (Nǐ qù bu qù?) = Are you going?. Or offer a choice with 还是: 茶还是咖啡？ (chá háishi kāfēi?).

The rule

English moves a question word to the front (“What are you eating?”). Chinese does not. The single most important habit for all wh-questions: the question word stays in place (in situ), sitting exactly where the answer noun or adverb would sit. Take a statement, swap the unknown part for the matching question word, and change nothing else.

• Statement: 我吃米饭。 (Wǒ chī mǐfàn.) = I eat rice.
• Question: 你吃什么？ (Nǐ chī shénme?) = What do you eat? — 什么 lands in the object slot, not at the front.

Type 1 - Question-word question (特指问句 tèzhǐ wènjù). Replace the unknown with a question word and keep declarative word order.

• 谁 (shéi, also shuí) = who / whom, used as subject or object: 谁来？ (Shéi lái? Who’s coming?), 你找谁？ (Nǐ zhǎo shéi? Whom are you looking for?).
• 什么 (shénme) = what; put it before a noun for “what / what kind of”: 什么书 (shénme shū) = what book.
• 哪 (nǎ) = which — it needs a measure word: 哪本书 (nǎ běn shū) = which book, 哪个 (nǎ ge) = which one.
• 几 (jǐ) = how many (a small count, under ten) and always takes a measure word: 几个人 (jǐ ge rén), 几点 (jǐ diǎn, what time).
• 多少 (duōshao) = how many / how much (any amount); the measure word is optional: 多少钱 (duōshao qián, how much money).
• 怎么 (zěnme) = how, placed before the verb: 怎么去 (zěnme qù, how to go).

Type 2 - A-not-A question (正反问句 zhèngfǎn wènjù). Say the verb (or adjective), then 不, then the same verb again: Verb + 不 + Verb. It means the same as a 吗-question.

• 你是不是学生？ (Nǐ shì bu shì xuésheng? Are you a student?), 好不好？ (Hǎo bu hǎo? OK?).
• 有 is negated by 没, so its A-not-A is 有没有 (yǒu méiyǒu), never 有不有.
• Two-syllable verbs give a choice: 喜不喜欢 (xǐ bu xǐhuan) or 喜欢不喜欢 (xǐhuan bu xǐhuan).

Type 3 - Alternative question (选择问句 xuǎnzé wènjù). Offer two options joined by 还是 (háishi): A 还是 B？ The listener picks one.

• 你喝茶还是喝咖啡？ (Nǐ hē chá háishi hē kāfēi? Do you drink tea or coffee?) — the second verb can drop: 你喝茶还是咖啡？

The one rule that ties them together: never add 吗. Each of these three is already a complete question. 你去哪儿吗？, 你去不去吗？ and 茶还是咖啡吗？ are all wrong.

Forms & patterns

The in-situ question words:

The three non-吗 question types side by side:

Examples

• 你叫什么名字？ (Nǐ jiào shénme míngzi?) - What’s your name?
• 他是谁？ (Tā shì shéi?) - Who is he?
• 你的家在哪儿？ (Nǐ de jiā zài nǎr?) - Where is your home?
• 你喜欢哪本书？ (Nǐ xǐhuan nǎ běn shū?) - Which book do you like?
• 你家有几口人？ (Nǐ jiā yǒu jǐ kǒu rén?) - How many people are in your family?
• 这个多少钱？ (Zhège duōshao qián?) - How much is this?
• 你怎么去学校？ (Nǐ zěnme qù xuéxiào?) - How do you get to school?
• 你去不去？ (Nǐ qù bu qù?) - Are you going or not?
• 你有没有中文书？ (Nǐ yǒu méiyǒu Zhōngwén shū?) - Do you have a Chinese book?
• 你喝茶还是喝咖啡？ (Nǐ hē chá háishi hē kāfēi?) - Do you drink tea or coffee?

Common mistakes

• 什么你吃？ -> 你吃什么？ (Nǐ chī shénme?) - do not front the question word English-style; it stays in the answer’s slot and the word order does not change.
• 你去哪儿吗？ -> 你去哪儿？ (Nǐ qù nǎr?) - a sentence that already has a question word cannot also take 吗; the two never combine.
• 你是不是学生吗？ -> 你是不是学生？ (Nǐ shì bu shì xuésheng?) - A-not-A is itself the yes/no question, so 吗 is redundant and wrong.
• 你有不有时间？ -> 你有没有时间？ (Nǐ yǒu méiyǒu shíjiān?) - 有 is negated by 没, so its A-not-A form is 有没有, never 有不有.
• 你喝茶或者咖啡？ -> 你喝茶还是咖啡？ (Nǐ hē chá háishi kāfēi?) - 还是 asks a choice question; 或者 (huòzhě) means “or” only in statements.

Tips

• Four ways to ask, one shared rule: the 吗-question (Lesson 11), the question-word question, the A-not-A question and the 还是 question are each complete on their own - adding 吗 to any of the last three is an error.
• The “in situ” trick: whatever answers the question lands in the question word’s exact spot. 你去哪儿？ -> 我去学校 - 学校 (xuéxiào) sits where 哪儿 (nǎr) sat. Translate straight, never reorder.
• 几 vs 多少: 几 (jǐ) expects a small number and always takes a measure word (几个, 几点); 多少 (duōshao) covers any amount and can skip it (多少钱). Use 几 for family members and hours, 多少 for prices and big counts.
• Sound notes: the 不 inside A-not-A is toneless (qù bu qù, hǎo bu hǎo); the negating 不 is normally bù but shifts to bú before a fourth tone (bù -> bú qù); 什么 and 多少 end in a neutral tone (shénme, duōshao); and 谁 is read shéi in everyday speech but shuí in careful or formal reading.

In short

To give a command, just say the verb phrase and drop the subject 你 (nǐ, “you”): 坐 (zuò) = “Sit”. Front it with 请 (qǐng, “please”) to be polite: 请坐 (qǐng zuò) = “Please sit”. To tell someone not to do something, put 别 (bié) or 不要 (búyào) before the verb: 别坐 / 不要坐 = “Don’t sit”.

The rule

Chinese has no special imperative form - no ending, no conjugation. An order is simply the plain verb phrase, and the subject 你 / 你们 (nǐ / nǐmen, “you / you all”) is normally dropped because it is obvious who you are talking to.

Positive command - bare verb phrase:

(请) + Verb phrase (+ 吧)

• 坐。 (Zuò.) = Sit.
• 进来。 (Jìnlái.) = Come in.

Step 1 - be polite with 请. Put 请 (qǐng, “please”) at the very front of the command. It is the single most useful politeness word and never changes form: 请坐 (qǐng zuò) = “please sit”, 请进 (qǐng jìn) = “please come in”. You may name the person with 请你 (qǐng nǐ) for a pointed, still-polite request: 请你安静一点 (qǐng nǐ ānjìng yìdiǎn) = “please be a bit quieter”.

Step 2 - soften with 吧. Tag the particle 吧 (ba) onto the end and a blunt order becomes a friendly suggestion or invitation: 走吧 (zǒu ba) = “let’s go / go on then”, 坐吧 (zuò ba) = “have a seat”.

Negative command (prohibition) - 别 or 不要:

别 / 不要 + Verb phrase (+ 了)

To forbid an action, put 别 (bié) or 不要 (búyào) before the verb. Both mean “don’t”. 别 is the contraction of 不要 and dominates in speech; 不要 is a touch more explicit and firmer.

• 别去。 (Bié qù.) = Don’t go.
• 不要去。 (Búyào qù.) = Don’t go.

Add 了 to mean “stop / enough”. The frame 别 + Verb + 了 tells someone to quit an action already underway: 别哭了 (bié kū le) = “stop crying”, 别说了 (bié shuō le) = “that’s enough, stop talking”. Without 了 it means “don’t (start)”; with 了 it means “quit what you are doing”.

Polite prohibition. Stack them: 请别 / 请不要 = “please don’t”. 请别抽烟 / 请不要抽烟 (qǐng bié / búyào chōuyān) = “please don’t smoke”.

Pronunciation note. 不 (bù) shifts to the 2nd tone bú before a 4th-tone syllable, and 要 (yào) is 4th tone - so 不要 is pronounced búyào, not bùyào.

Forms & patterns

The command frames, positive and negative:

别 vs 不要 at a glance:

Examples

• 请坐。 (Qǐng zuò.) - Please sit down.
• 请进！ (Qǐng jìn!) - Please come in!
• 请给我一杯水。 (Qǐng gěi wǒ yì bēi shuǐ.) - Please give me a glass of water.
• 快走吧！ (Kuài zǒu ba!) - Come on, let’s get going!
• 别担心。 (Bié dānxīn.) - Don’t worry.
• 别哭了。 (Bié kū le.) - Stop crying.
• 上课的时候不要说话。 (Shàngkè de shíhou búyào shuōhuà.) - Don’t talk during class.
• 请不要抽烟。 (Qǐng búyào chōuyān.) - Please don’t smoke.
• 请你安静一点。 (Qǐng nǐ ānjìng yìdiǎn.) - Please be a bit quieter.
• 小心！ (Xiǎoxīn!) - Be careful!

Common mistakes

• 不喝！ (meaning “Don’t drink!”) -> 别喝！/ 不要喝！ (bié hē! / búyào hē!) - plain 不 + verb is a statement (“won’t drink”), never a command; a prohibition needs 别 or 不要.
• 没说话！ (meaning “Don’t talk!”) -> 别说话！ (bié shuōhuà!) - 没 (méi) negates the past (“didn’t speak”); to forbid an action, use 别 / 不要, not 没.
• 给我请一杯水。 -> 请给我一杯水。 (qǐng gěi wǒ yì bēi shuǐ) - 请 sits at the very front of the whole command, not in the middle.
• bùyào -> búyào - 不 becomes 2nd-tone bú before the 4th-tone 要 (yào); write and say búyào.

Tips

• 请 (qǐng) is your all-purpose “please”: front-load it and any request turns polite. It shows up in set formulas too - 请问 (qǐng wèn, “may I ask…”), 请等一下 (qǐng děng yíxià, “please wait a moment”). It never inflects.
• 别 is just 不要 squeezed into one syllable (不 + 要 -> 别). Reach for 别 in speech; you will meet 不要, or the formal 请勿 (qǐng wù), on printed signs and notices.
• The little 了 flips the meaning: 别哭 = “don’t cry (don’t start)”, but 别哭了 = “stop crying (you already are)”. Add 了 when the action is already happening.
• Tag 吧 (ba) on the end to downgrade an order to a suggestion: 走吧 (zǒu ba) = “let’s go” feels far gentler than a bare 走.

In short

Both 也 (yě, also/too) and 都 (dōu, all/both) are adverbs, so they live in the same fixed spot: after the subject and right before the verb - never at the end like English “too,” and never in front of the subject. So “I’m going too” is 我也去 (wǒ yě qù) and “we all go” is 我们都去 (wǒmen dōu qù). Remember one thing about 都: it sums up whatever comes to its left.

The rule

Step 1 - They are adverbs, so they go before the verb. Mandarin puts scope adverbs inside the clause, between the subject and the predicate:

Subject + 也 / 都 + Verb (or 很 + Adj, or 是 + Noun)

You can never park 也 or 都 at the end of the sentence the way English drops “too” or “all” there, and you can never put them ahead of the subject.

Step 2 - 也 (yě) = “also / too,” and it needs a predicate. 也 links a second situation to a first one: 我也去 (wǒ yě qù, I’ll go too). Because it is an adverb, it must have a verb or adjective after it - you cannot answer “me too” with a bare 也. The fix is to supply a predicate, usually 是: 我也是 (wǒ yě shì, me too). It sits before 不 / 没, before 很, and before 是: 我也不去 (wǒ yě bù qù, I’m not going either), 她也很高 (tā yě hěn gāo, she’s tall too).

Step 3 - 都 (dōu) = “all / both,” and it looks LEFT. 都 totalizes a plural word that has already appeared - the subject or a fronted topic. So the plural noun comes first and 都 follows it: 我们都是学生 (wǒmen dōu shì xuéshēng, we’re all students), 他们都来了 (tāmen dōu lái le, they’ve all come). This is why 都我们去 is impossible: there is nothing to its left to sum up. English lets “all” float (“all of us go”); Chinese anchors it after the noun.

Step 4 - Negation scope: where 不 sits changes the meaning. With 都, the order of 都 and 不 decides total vs partial negation:

• 都不 / 都没 = total negation, “none / not any”: 他们都不去 (tāmen dōu bù qù, none of them are going).
• 不都 = partial negation, “not all”: 他们不都去 (tāmen bù dōu qù, not all of them go - some do).

With 也, negation gives English “either / neither”: 我也不去 (wǒ yě bù qù, I’m not going either). Note that 不 is written bù but is pronounced bú before a 4th-tone verb, so 不去 is said bú qù.

Step 5 - Combining them, and the 都…了 pattern. When both appear, the order is fixed as 也都: 他们也都很忙 (tāmen yě dōu hěn máng, they’re all busy too). Separately, 都…了 is an emphatic frame that means “already,” often with a hint of surprise or impatience - here 都 does not mean “all”: 都十点了 (dōu shí diǎn le, it’s already ten o’clock!), 他都走了 (tā dōu zǒu le, he’s already left).

Forms & patterns

Where 也 and 都 sit in the clause:

Negation scope with 都 - the position of 不 flips the meaning:

Examples

• 我也去。 (Wǒ yě qù.) - I’m going too.
• 我也是学生。 (Wǒ yě shì xuéshēng.) - I’m a student too.
• 他们都来了。 (Tāmen dōu lái le.) - They’ve all come.
• 我们都是中国人。 (Wǒmen dōu shì Zhōngguórén.) - We’re all Chinese.
• 他们也都很忙。 (Tāmen yě dōu hěn máng.) - They’re all busy too.
• 我也不去。 (Wǒ yě bù qù.) - I’m not going either.
• 他们都不喜欢咖啡。 (Tāmen dōu bù xǐhuan kāfēi.) - None of them like coffee.
• 我们不都是学生。 (Wǒmen bù dōu shì xuéshēng.) - Not all of us are students.
• 都十点了！ (Dōu shí diǎn le!) - It’s already ten o’clock!
• 你们都好吗？ (Nǐmen dōu hǎo ma?) - Are you all well?

Common mistakes

• 我去也。 -> 我也去。 (Wǒ yě qù.) - 也 is an adverb; it goes before the verb, never at the end like English “too.”
• 也我去。 -> 我也去。 - 也 follows the subject, it does not stand in front of it.
• 都我们是学生。 -> 我们都是学生。 - 都 sums up the noun to its left, so the plural subject must come first.
• 我也。 -> 我也是。 - 也 cannot close a clause on its own; “me too” needs a predicate, so add 是.
• 他们不都喜欢咖啡。 (meant as “none of them like it”) -> 他们都不喜欢咖啡。 - 不都 means “not all”; for “none,” negation goes after 都 as 都不.

Tips

• Mnemonic for 都: it looks left. Whatever it totalizes - the whole group - must already be sitting in front of it. If there is no plural word to the left, 都 has nothing to do.
• 也 covers every English polarity word at once: “too,” “also,” “as well,” and in the negative “either / neither.” 我也不知道 (wǒ yě bù zhīdào) = “I don’t know either.”
• The word is dōu (1st tone) for “all.” The same character read dū means “capital city” (as in 首都, shǒudū) - a different word, so keep the tone straight.
• When 也 or 都 lands before a 3rd-tone word, watch the sandhi: 也很好 is written yě hěn hǎo but the stacked 3rd tones shift it to yé hén hǎo in speech.

In short

A modal verb (an “auxiliary,” 能愿动词 néngyuàn dòngcí) goes right before the main verb and says something about it: whether you can, may or want to do it. The five A1 workhorses are 会 (huì, know how to / likely to), 能 (néng, be able to), 可以 (kěyǐ, be allowed to), 想 (xiǎng, want to), and 要 (yào, want / be going to). They all negate with 不 - never 没 - and none of them takes 了 or 过.

The rule

The frame never changes:

Subject + (adverb) + Modal + Verb (+ Object)

So “I want to drink tea” is 我想喝茶 (wǒ xiǎng hē chá): subject 我, modal 想, verb 喝, object 茶. The modal sits between the subject and the verb, and any adverb (like 很 or 都) goes in front of the modal, not the main verb: 我很想去 (wǒ hěn xiǎng qù, I really want to go).

The three “can” words. English “can” hides three different Chinese ideas - pick by why something is possible:

• 会 (huì) - a learned ability, a skill you acquired: 我会游泳 (wǒ huì yóuyǒng, I can swim), 我会说中文 (wǒ huì shuō Zhōngwén, I can speak Chinese). 会 also predicts likelihood: 明天会下雨 (míngtiān huì xià yǔ, it’ll rain tomorrow).
• 能 (néng) - a capability given the circumstances: being free, strong or well enough. 你今天能来吗？ (nǐ jīntiān néng lái ma?, can you come today?) asks whether conditions allow it, not whether you know how. 能 also covers capacity: 他能吃五个 (tā néng chī wǔ ge, he can eat five).
• 可以 (kěyǐ) - permission, “may / be allowed to”: 这里可以抽烟吗？ (zhèlǐ kěyǐ chōuyān ma?, is smoking allowed here?), 你可以走了 (nǐ kěyǐ zǒu le, you may go now).

The line between 能 and 可以 is thin - both work for “am I allowed / able to,” and speakers often swap them. Reserve 会 for skill and prediction, and you avoid the biggest slip.

Wanting: 想 vs 要. 想 (xiǎng) is the soft one, “would like to,” a wish: 我想去北京 (wǒ xiǎng qù Běijīng, I’d like to go to Beijing). 要 (yào) is firmer - a decision or plan, “want to / be going to / will”: 我要去北京 (wǒ yào qù Běijīng, I’m going to Beijing). Unlike the others, 要 also takes a plain noun to mean “want (to have)”: 我要一杯咖啡 (wǒ yào yì bēi kāfēi, I want a coffee).

Negation - always 不, and mind 要. Modals are negated with 不, never 没: 不会 / 不能 / 不可以 / 不想. Two traps: 不可以 means “may not, it’s forbidden,” a real prohibition; and 要 normally does not negate to 不要 in the “want” sense - “don’t want to” is 不想, and the plain future negative is just 不 + verb (我明天不去, wǒ míngtiān bú qù). 不要 by itself is the command “don’t!” and belongs to Imperatives (请/别/不要).

Questions and short answers. Make a yes/no question with 吗, or use the A-not-A form by doubling the modal: 会不会 / 能不能 / 可不可以 / 想不想 / 要不要. A modal can answer on its own: “会。” (huì, “Yes, I can”), “不能。” (bù néng, “No, I can’t”).

Forms & patterns

Which word for which meaning:

Negative and question forms:

Examples

• 我会说一点儿中文。 (Wǒ huì shuō yìdiǎnr Zhōngwén.) - I can speak a little Chinese.
• 明天会下雨。 (Míngtiān huì xià yǔ.) - It’s going to rain tomorrow.
• 你能来吗？ (Nǐ néng lái ma?) - Are you able to come?
• 这里可以抽烟吗？ (Zhèlǐ kěyǐ chōuyān ma?) - Is smoking allowed here?
• 我想喝茶。 (Wǒ xiǎng hē chá.) - I’d like to drink tea.
• 我要一杯咖啡。 (Wǒ yào yì bēi kāfēi.) - I want a cup of coffee.
• 我要去北京。 (Wǒ yào qù Běijīng.) - I’m going to go to Beijing.
• 我不会开车。 (Wǒ bú huì kāichē.) - I can’t drive (don’t know how).
• 你可以走了。 (Nǐ kěyǐ zǒu le.) - You may go now.
• 你想不想去？ (Nǐ xiǎng bu xiǎng qù?) - Do you want to go?

Common mistakes

• 我没会说中文。 -> 我不会说中文。 (Wǒ bú huì shuō Zhōngwén.) - Modals are negated with 不, never 没.
• 我想一杯咖啡。 -> 我要一杯咖啡。 (Wǒ yào yì bēi kāfēi.) - 想 + a noun means “miss / think of.” To want an object, use 要 (or 想要).
• 我说会中文。 -> 我会说中文。 (Wǒ huì shuō Zhōngwén.) - The modal comes before the main verb, not after it.
• 你会来吗？ (meaning “are you able to come?”) -> 你能来吗？ (Nǐ néng lái ma?) - 会 is skill or likelihood; whether circumstances let you come is 能 (or 可以).
• 我会说中文了过。 -> 我会说中文。 - Modals never carry 了 or 过 themselves; leave aspect off the modal.

Tips

• Sort the three “cans” by the reason: 会 = I learned it, 能 = conditions allow it, 可以 = someone permits it. When in doubt between 能 and 可以, either is usually safe.
• 想 is a wish, 要 is a decision. “我想去” leaves the door open; “我要去” means it’s settled - so 要 can sound blunt, and 想 is the polite everyday choice for “I’d like to.”
• Watch the tone sandhi on 不: it’s bú before a 4th tone (不会 bú huì, 不要 bú yào) but stays bù elsewhere (不能 bù néng). And 可以 is written kěyǐ but said kéyǐ, two 3rd tones colliding.
• False-friend alert: don’t reach for 不要 to mean “I don’t want to” - that’s the command “don’t!”. Say 不想.

In short

Clock times, dates and prices are all built the same way: a number plus a unit word (点 diǎn “o’clock”, 月 yuè “month”, 块 kuài “yuan”), always running big unit to small unit - the reverse of English. To tell the time, give a date or quote a price you need no verb at all: the number phrase is the whole predicate (现在三点。 Xiànzài sān diǎn. “It’s three o’clock.”).

The rule

This lesson is about the shapes of these phrases and where they sit in a sentence. It assumes you can already build the numbers themselves - see Numbers (二 vs 两; big numbers).

Clock time - hours, then minutes. The frame is [hour]点 + [minutes]分: 两点二十分 liǎng diǎn èr shí fēn (2:20). Four shortcuts do most of the work:

• 半 bàn = half past: 三点半 sān diǎn bàn (3:30).
• 刻 kè = a quarter (15 min): 三点一刻 sān diǎn yī kè (3:15), 三点三刻 sān diǎn sān kè (3:45). There is no 二刻 for 30 - use 半.
• 差 chà = “lacking / to”: 差五分八点 chà wǔ fēn bā diǎn (7:55, “five to eight”).
• Minutes under ten take a spoken 零 líng: 两点零五分 liǎng diǎn líng wǔ fēn (2:05). 分 itself is optional after the number: 两点二十 = 两点二十分.

The hour “2” is 两点 liǎng diǎn, never 二点 (2 before a unit word behaves like 2 before a measure word). But 12 o’clock is 十二点 shí èr diǎn - inside a bigger number the digit stays 二. Put the part of day before the hour: 早上 zǎoshang (early morning), 上午 shàngwǔ (morning), 中午 zhōngwǔ (noon), 下午 xiàwǔ (afternoon), 晚上 wǎnshang (evening) - so 3 p.m. is 下午三点 xiàwǔ sān diǎn.

Dates - year, month, day, weekday, in that order. The frame is [digits]年 + [n]月 + [n]号 + 星期[n]:

• 年 nián “year” - read the digits one by one: 二零二六年 èr líng èr liù nián (2026), not as a whole number.
• 月 yuè “month” - just number + 月: 一月 yī yuè (January) … 十二月 shí èr yuè (December).
• 号 hào “day of the month” in speech; the written form is 日 rì: 十七号 shí qī hào = 十七日 (the 17th).
• 星期 xīngqī “week” + number for the weekday: 星期一 xīngqī yī (Monday) … 星期六 xīngqī liù (Saturday). Sunday breaks the pattern: 星期天 xīngqī tiān (spoken) or 星期日 xīngqī rì (written), never 星期七.

Money - three units, spoken vs written. The everyday spoken words are 块 kuài (the yuan) and 毛 máo (a tenth); on receipts and price tags you see the formal 元 yuán and 角 jiǎo. The frame is [n]块 + [n]毛 + [n]分, and the last unit is usually dropped: 三块五 sān kuài wǔ = 3.50 yuan. Ask with 多少钱 duōshao qián (“how much money”). As with the clock, 2 yuan is 两块 liǎng kuài, not 二块.

Where the phrase goes in the sentence. A clock time or date is a “time-when” word: it comes before the verb, after (or before) the subject, never after the object. The frame is Subject + Time-when + Verb (+ Object): 我下午三点上课。 Wǒ xiàwǔ sān diǎn shàngkè. (“I have class at 3 p.m.”). English puts “at 3 p.m.” at the end; Chinese never does. (Relative time words like 以前 / 以后 belong to Time words, sequence and simultaneity.)

Forms & patterns

Telling the time:

Days of the week:

Money units - spoken vs written:

Examples

• 现在几点？——两点半。 (Xiànzài jǐ diǎn? —— Liǎng diǎn bàn.) - What time is it now? — Half past two.
• 我早上七点起床。 (Wǒ zǎoshang qī diǎn qǐchuáng.) - I get up at seven in the morning.
• 我们下午三点一刻开会。 (Wǒmen xiàwǔ sān diǎn yī kè kāihuì.) - We have a meeting at a quarter past three in the afternoon.
• 差五分八点。 (Chà wǔ fēn bā diǎn.) - Five to eight.
• 今天几月几号？ (Jīntiān jǐ yuè jǐ hào?) - What’s the date today?
• 今天是七月十七号，星期五。 (Jīntiān shì qī yuè shí qī hào, xīngqī wǔ.) - Today is July 17th, Friday.
• 我的生日是一九九八年五月二号。 (Wǒ de shēngrì shì yī jiǔ jiǔ bā nián wǔ yuè èr hào.) - My birthday is May 2nd, 1998.
• 这个多少钱？——三块五。 (Zhège duōshao qián? —— Sān kuài wǔ.) - How much is this? — Three fifty.
• 一斤苹果五块钱。 (Yī jīn píngguǒ wǔ kuài qián.) - A catty (500 g) of apples is five yuan.

Common mistakes

• 二点 -> 两点 (liǎng diǎn, 2:00) - the hour “2” before 点 takes 两, like 2 before a measure word; but 12:00 stays 十二点 because the 2 is inside a bigger number.
• 我起床下午三点 -> 我下午三点起床 (wǒ xiàwǔ sān diǎn qǐchuáng, I get up at 3 p.m.) - a time-when phrase goes before the verb, never trailing at the end as in English.
• 今天不星期五 -> 今天不是星期五 (jīntiān bù shì xīngqī wǔ, today is not Friday; 不 bù is written in its citation tone but is said bú before the 4th-tone 是) - a date / time / price predicate drops 是 only when positive; to negate it you must restore 是 and negate that with 不.
• 星期七 -> 星期天 / 星期日 (xīngqī tiān / xīngqī rì, Sunday) - Sunday is 天 or 日, never 七.
• 两千零二十六年 -> 二零二六年 (èr líng èr liù nián, the year 2026) - a year is read digit by digit, not as one cardinal number.

Tips

• Everything runs big to small: a full date-time is year -> month -> day -> weekday -> part of day -> hour -> minute, the exact reverse of English “3:15 p.m. on Friday, July 17.”
• No verb is needed to state the time, date or price - the number phrase is the predicate: 现在三点。今天星期五。一共二十块。 (Xiànzài sān diǎn. Jīntiān xīngqī wǔ. Yīgòng èr shí kuài.) Add 是 only for emphasis or, obligatorily, in the negative (不是).
• Two registers, two words: 块 / 毛 (spoken) vs 元 / 角 (written), and 号 / 星期天 (spoken) vs 日 / 星期日 (written). 周 zhōu is a common shorter swap for 星期: 周一 zhōu yī = 星期一.
• The “two” trap recurs: 两点 (2:00), 两块 (2 yuan), 两毛 (2 jiao) all take 两. And 一 shifts tone by sandhi in speech (yì / yí) - the character never changes; see Numbers (二 vs 两; big numbers).

In short

When one subject does several things in a row, Mandarin just lines the verb phrases up in the order they happen - no “and”, no “to”. The everyday case is going somewhere to do something: 我去商店买东西。 (Wǒ qù shāngdiàn mǎi dōngxi.) - I’m going to the store to buy things. The motion verbs are 去 (qù, go - away from the speaker) and 来 (lái, come - toward the speaker).

The rule

A serial-verb sentence (连动句, liándòngjù) has one subject and two or more verb phrases in a fixed order. English glues them with “and” or “to”; Mandarin uses nothing at all. The skeleton is:

Subject + VP1 + VP2 (+ VP3 …)

Step 1 - order the verbs by the real-world timeline. The verbs appear in the sequence the actions actually happen. The first VP is usually the means, the method, or the going; the second is the purpose or goal. In 我去商店买东西, you first go to the store (去商店) and then buy things (买东西) - that is the order on the page.

Step 2 - join nothing. Do not put 和 (hé, “and”) between the verbs. 和 links nouns only (see Basic word order (SVO)); a serial verb takes no connector. Just set VP2 straight after VP1.

Step 3 - for coming and going, use 来/去 as the motion verb. These are the core directional verbs (趋向动词). They are deictic - you choose by where the speaker is standing:

• 去 (qù) - motion away from the speaker: 我去学校。 (Wǒ qù xuéxiào.) - I go to school.
• 来 (lái) - motion toward the speaker: 你来我家。 (Nǐ lái wǒ jiā.) - You come to my place.

They take the destination directly, with no preposition - 去 already contains the English “to”. Then you add the purpose VP:

Subject + 去/来 + (Place) + VP

• 我去邮局寄信。 (Wǒ qù yóujú jì xìn.) - I go to the post office to mail a letter.
• 他来找你。 (Tā lái zhǎo nǐ.) - He’s coming to look for you.

You can drop the place when it’s understood: 我去买东西。 (Wǒ qù mǎi dōngxi.) - I’m going to buy things.

Two more common serial frames. A vehicle verb (坐 zuò, ride/sit; 骑 qí, ride astride; 开 kāi, drive) plus 去/来 says how you travel - the means comes first: 我坐地铁去公司。 (Wǒ zuò dìtiě qù gōngsī.) - I take the subway to the office. And 用 (yòng, use) plus a tool says with what: 我用筷子吃饭。 (Wǒ yòng kuàizi chī fàn.) - I eat with chopsticks.

Negation and questions attach to the first verb. Put 不 or 没 before VP1, and form the A-not-A question on VP1: 我不去买东西 (wǒ bú qù mǎi dōngxi, I’m not going to buy things), 你去不去商店？ (nǐ qù bu qù shāngdiàn?, are you going to the store?). Note the sandhi: 不 becomes bú before the 4th-tone 去 (qù). Whether an action was completed - where the particle 了 lands in a serial sentence - is the job of Completed-action 了 (verb + 了).

Forms & patterns

去 vs 来 - the deictic pair:

Serial-verb patterns:

Examples

• 我去商店买东西。 (Wǒ qù shāngdiàn mǎi dōngxi.) - I’m going to the store to buy things.
• 她来我家吃饭。 (Tā lái wǒ jiā chī fàn.) - She’s coming to my place to eat.
• 我们去公园散步。 (Wǒmen qù gōngyuán sànbù.) - We’re going to the park to take a walk.
• 他每天坐地铁去上班。 (Tā měitiān zuò dìtiě qù shàngbān.) - He takes the subway to work every day.
• 我用筷子吃饭。 (Wǒ yòng kuàizi chī fàn.) - I eat with chopsticks.
• 你来帮我。 (Nǐ lái bāng wǒ.) - Come and help me.
• 我去邮局寄信。 (Wǒ qù yóujú jì xìn.) - I’m going to the post office to mail a letter.
• 他坐飞机去北京开会。 (Tā zuò fēijī qù Běijīng kāihuì.) - He flies to Beijing for a meeting.
• 周末我们去看电影。 (Zhōumò wǒmen qù kàn diànyǐng.) - On weekends we go to watch a movie.
• 我没去图书馆借书。 (Wǒ méi qù túshūguǎn jiè shū.) - I didn’t go to the library to borrow books.

Common mistakes

• 我去和买东西。 -> 我去买东西。 (Wǒ qù mǎi dōngxi.) - 和 joins nouns, never verbs; serial verbs take no connector at all.
• 我买东西去商店。 -> 我去商店买东西。 (Wǒ qù shāngdiàn mǎi dōngxi.) - keep the timeline order: you go first, then buy, so 去商店 comes before 买东西.
• (planning a trip from home) 我来北京。 -> 我去北京。 (Wǒ qù Běijīng.) - use 去 for motion away from where you are; 来 is only for motion toward the speaker.
• 我去不买东西。 -> 我不去买东西。 (Wǒ bú qù mǎi dōngxi.) - negate the first verb; 不/没 go before VP1, not before a later verb.
• 我去学校坐公交车。 -> 我坐公交车去学校。 (Wǒ zuò gōngjiāochē qù xuéxiào.) - the means (坐公交车) comes before the motion and goal (去学校).

Tips

• 来/去 are deictic, like English “come/go” but stricter: 去 points away from the speaker, 来 points toward them. “Go to your house” is 去你家; “come to my house” is 来我家 - swap them and the direction flips.
• Read a serial sentence as a mini-timeline: write the verbs in the order the actions happen (go first, then do the thing). English word order (“buy something at the store”) often reverses this, so trust the timeline, not the English.
• 去/来 already mean “go/come to”, so they take the destination bare - 去学校, not 去到学校 with an extra preposition. This is a false-friend trap against English “go TO school”.
• To join nouns you have 和 (hé); to string verbs in sequence you use nothing. If you catch yourself writing 和 between two verbs, delete it.

In short

Put 了 (le) right after the verb to mark that an action was completed or realized: 我买了一本书 (Wǒ mǎi le yì běn shū) = I bought a book. This 了 signals completion, not past tense - it can even sit inside a future plan. When the sentence ends on the object, that object normally carries a number + measure word (一本, 两个). To say the action did not happen, switch to 没(有) and drop 了 entirely: 我没买书 (Wǒ méi mǎi shū).

The rule

Chinese has no verb tenses. Instead it marks aspect - whether an action is finished, ongoing, experienced. The particle 了 (le) placed immediately after a verb is the completed-action (完成体, wánchéngtǐ) marker: it says the event was carried through to completion.

Step 1 - Where it goes. 了 attaches directly to the verb, and the object follows:

Subject + Verb + 了 + (number + measure word +) Object

我喝了一杯咖啡。 (Wǒ hē le yì bēi kāfēi.) = I drank a cup of coffee. Nothing comes between the verb and 了.

Step 2 - Completion, not “past tense.” 了 marks that the action is complete, which is often but not always in the past. It happily lives in a future frame: 我吃了饭就走。 (Wǒ chī le fàn jiù zǒu.) = I’ll leave once I’ve eaten. Here the eating hasn’t happened yet - 了 just says “after that action is finished.” Do not reach for 了 every time you translate an English past-tense verb; reach for it when you mean the action reached its end point.

Step 3 - Give the object a quantity. A verb + 了 followed by a bare, unmodified noun sounds unfinished, as if the listener is waiting for more (我买了书… feels like “I bought a book and then…”). To make a complete, self-standing statement, add a number + measure word, or make the object specific: 我买了一本书 (bought a book), 我买了那本书 (Wǒ mǎi le nà běn shū, bought that book). The number can be 一 (yī, one) or any other: 两个, 三杯, 几本.

Step 4 - No object? 了 sits at the end. If the verb has no object, 了 lands at the very end of the clause: 我吃了。 (Wǒ chī le.) = I’ve eaten. This is still the verb-suffix 了. It occupies the same slot as the sentence-final 了 of change-of-state (a different particle, taught in Sentence-final 了 and change of state) - here just take it as “verb + 了, object left out.”

Step 5 - Negation removes 了. To say the action did not happen, use 没(有) (méiyǒu) before the verb and delete 了: 我没买那本书。 (Wǒ méi mǎi nà běn shū.) = I didn’t buy that book. Because 没 already means “the event did not occur,” keeping 了 would be a contradiction. (The 不 / 没 split itself is in Negation with 不 and 没(有).)

Step 6 - Asking about completion. Add 吗 to the statement, or tack on 没有 for an A-not-A question: 你买了那本书吗？ / 你买了没有？ (Nǐ mǎi le méiyǒu?) = Did you buy it (or not)?

Forms & patterns

The core patterns, by object type:

The same verb across statement, negation and question - note that 了 disappears under negation:

Examples

• 我买了一本书。 (Wǒ mǎi le yì běn shū.) - I bought a book.
• 她喝了一杯咖啡。 (Tā hē le yì bēi kāfēi.) - She drank a cup of coffee.
• 我们看了那部电影。 (Wǒmen kàn le nà bù diànyǐng.) - We watched that movie.
• 他吃了两个苹果。 (Tā chī le liǎng gè píngguǒ.) - He ate two apples.
• 昨天我买了一件衣服。 (Zuótiān wǒ mǎi le yí jiàn yīfu.) - Yesterday I bought a piece of clothing.
• 我吃了饭就去上班。 (Wǒ chī le fàn jiù qù shàngbān.) - I’ll go to work once I’ve eaten.
• 你喝了几杯？ (Nǐ hē le jǐ bēi?) - How many cups did you drink?
• 我没买那本书。 (Wǒ méi mǎi nà běn shū.) - I didn’t buy that book.

Common mistakes

• 我买书。 (meaning “I bought a book”) -> 我买了一本书。 (Wǒ mǎi le yì běn shū.) - a completed action needs verb + 了; the bare verb reads as a habit or a general statement.
• 我没买了衣服。 -> 我没买衣服。 (Wǒ méi mǎi yīfu.) - 没 already marks the action as not having happened, so 了 must be dropped.
• 我买了书。 (as a full, closed statement) -> 我买了三本书。 (Wǒ mǎi le sān běn shū.) - a bare noun after 了 leaves the sentence hanging; give the object a number + measure word (or make it specific).
• 我了吃饭。 -> 我吃了饭。 (Wǒ chī le fàn.) - 了 attaches after the verb, never before it.

Tips

• Think “completion switch,” not “past tense.” If the action reaches its end point - even in a future plan (吃了饭就走) - 了 fits; if you just mean a habit or a state that happened to be in the past, it does not.
• Build the reflex V + 了 + 一 + measure word + noun: 买了一本书, 喝了一杯茶, 看了一个电影. The quantity is what lets the sentence stand on its own.
• For life experience (“Have you ever been to China?”) Mandarin uses 过 (guo), not 了 - that is a different aspect, covered in Experiential aspect 过.
• When the verb has no object, 了 rides at the sentence end (我吃了), which looks identical to the change-of-state 了. They are two different particles; keep them apart via Sentence-final 了 and change of state.

In short

At the very end of a sentence, 了 (le) means “things are different now.” It marks a new situation or a change of state, not a finished action. 下雨了 (xià yǔ le) = “it’s raining now” - it wasn’t a moment ago. This is a separate 了 from the completion 了 that hugs the verb: this one sits last and reports the change.

The rule

Chinese has two different 了 (le), and this lesson owns the second one - the sentence-final modal particle (语气助词, yǔqì zhùcí). It reports that a new state has arrived, measured against some earlier point. The core meaning is “now, and it’s different.” It goes at the very end of the whole sentence:

Subject + Predicate + 了

Both 了 are the neutral-tone particle le - never liǎo here. What tells them apart is position and job, not spelling (see the table below, and completion 了 in Completed-action 了 (verb + 了)).

Use 1 - a new situation. Something has come into being: 下雨了 (xià yǔ le, it’s raining now), 他是大学生了 (tā shì dàxuéshēng le, he’s a university student now), 我知道了 (wǒ zhīdào le, now I get it). English often carries this with “now,” “already,” or a fresh present tense.

Use 2 - an adjective “has become.” With a stative adjective, final 了 says the quality is newly true: 天黑了 (tiān hēi le, it’s gotten dark), 我饿了 (wǒ è le, I’m hungry now). No 是 (shì) here - the adjective is its own predicate, as in Adjectival predicate and degree adverbs.

Use 3 - a new quantity, age or time is reached. 我三十岁了 (wǒ sānshí suì le, I’ve turned thirty), 快十点了 (kuài shí diǎn le, it’s almost ten now).

Use 4 - a change of plan or habit, with 不…了. Put 了 after a negated verb to say “not anymore / not going to after all”: 我不去了 (wǒ bù qù le, I’m not going anymore), 他不抽烟了 (tā bù chōu yān le, he doesn’t smoke anymore). To say a thing has run out, use 没(有) + noun + 了: 没有钱了 (méiyǒu qián le, the money’s gone now). This is why 了 pairs so often with the negators from Negation with 不 and 没(有). (不 is written here with its citation tone bù; before a 4th-tone verb such as 去 (qù) or 饿 (è) it is spoken bú - that tone sandhi is covered in that lesson.)

Use 5 - “stop,” with 别…了. 别 + Verb + 了 tells someone to quit an action already in progress: 别说了 (bié shuō le, stop talking).

The 太…了 frame. The intensifier 太…了 (tài…le, “too / so…!”) always closes with this 了: 太贵了 (tài guì le, too expensive). Treat it as a fixed wrapper.

Note - the imminent 快要…了. The “about to happen” pattern 快要…了 / 就要…了 also ends in this 了, but it is developed in Conditions and immediacy; here just recognise that its final 了 is the same change-of-state particle.

Forms & patterns

What a sentence-final 了 signals:

Two different 了 - position tells them apart:

Negating a change of state:

Examples

• 下雨了。 (Xià yǔ le.) - It’s raining now.
• 天黑了。 (Tiān hēi le.) - It’s gotten dark.
• 我饿了。 (Wǒ è le.) - I’m hungry now.
• 我知道了。 (Wǒ zhīdào le.) - OK, I get it now.
• 他是大学生了。 (Tā shì dàxuéshēng le.) - He’s a university student now.
• 我三十岁了。 (Wǒ sānshí suì le.) - I’ve turned thirty.
• 我不去了。 (Wǒ bù qù le.) - I’m not going anymore.
• 他不抽烟了。 (Tā bù chōu yān le.) - He doesn’t smoke anymore.
• 太晚了。 (Tài wǎn le.) - It’s too late now.
• 别说了。 (Bié shuō le.) - Stop talking.

Common mistakes

• 了下雨。 -> 下雨了。 (Xià yǔ le.) - the change-of-state 了 goes at the very end of the sentence, never at the front.
• 天气是冷了。 -> 天气冷了。 (Tiānqì lěng le.) - an adjective is its own predicate; a change of state takes no 是.
• Meaning “I’ve quit smoking”: 我不抽烟。 -> 我不抽烟了。 (Wǒ bù chōu yān le.) - without 了, 我不抽烟 is just a habit (“I don’t smoke”); the final 了 is what adds “now / anymore.”
• Meaning “I’m not hungry anymore”: 我没饿了。 -> 我不饿了。 (Wǒ bù è le.) - the “not … anymore” change uses 不…了, not 没.
• 我每天喝咖啡了。 -> 我每天喝咖啡。 (Wǒ měitiān hē kāfēi.) - a timeless habit with no change needs no 了; add it only when something has actually become different.

Tips

• One mental test: does the sentence say something is different now than before? If yes, close it with 了. A timeless habit or fact (“I drink coffee every day”) takes none.
• Position sorts the two 了 apart: a verb-hugging 了 = completed action (Completed-action 了); an end-of-sentence 了 = “now, it’s changed.” When the verb is also the last word (他走了, tā zǒu le, he’s left now), a single 了 can carry both jobs at once.
• 不…了 is one of the most common spoken uses: 我不去了 = “I’ve decided not to go.” Hear it as “not … anymore / after all,” a change of mind.
• 我知道了 / 我懂了 (wǒ dǒng le, I get it now) with 了 marks the moment of realization - which is exactly why they are the standard reply to being told something. Plain 我知道 states you already know it.

In short

Add 过 (guo) right after a verb to say the subject has ever had that experience - has done it at least once at some point up to now. 我去过中国 (wǒ qùguo Zhōngguó) = “I have been to China (at some time).” To say you have never done it, wrap the verb in 没(有)…过 (méi…guo): 我没去过中国 = “I’ve never been to China.” This is English’s “have you ever…?”, not “did you (just) finish…?”.

The rule

过 is the experiential aspect suffix. It attaches directly to the verb and signals that the event has been experienced - it happened at least once, at an unspecified time before now. The occasion itself is usually over and done (you went and came back), and it may well be repeatable.

The core pattern is:

Subject + Verb + 过 + (Object)

Step 1 - attach 过 to the verb. It sits immediately after the verb, before any object: 看过这本书 (kànguo zhè běn shū, “have read this book”), never 看这本书过. If the verb takes an object, 过 slips in between them.

Step 2 - negate with 没(有), and keep 过. Experiential negation is 没(有) + Verb + 过: 我没去过中国 (wǒ méi qùguo Zhōngguó) = “I have never been to China.” Unlike the completion 了 - which disappears under 没 - the 过 stays put, because it is exactly what carries the “ever / never” meaning.

Step 3 - ask with 吗 or A-not-A. A yes/no question just adds 吗 (ma): 你去过中国吗？ For the A-not-A form, tack 没有 onto the end: 你去过中国没有？ Both mean “Have you (ever) been to China?”.

Pronunciation. As an aspect suffix, 过 is toneless: guo. (The standalone verb 过, guò in 4th tone, means “to pass / to cross” - a different word wearing the same character.)

Experience, not completion. 过 stresses “at least once, ever,” often about a finished, possibly repeatable event; the completion 了 stresses that one specific event was carried through and its result may still stand. The full contrast lives in the table below and is owned by Completed-action 了 (verb + 了).

Handy companions. The adverb 曾经 (céngjīng, “once, formerly”) reinforces past experience: 我曾经去过。 And 从来 (cónglái) with 没…过 means “never ever”: 我从来没去过。 To count how many times, put a number + 次 (cì, “times”) after 过: 我去过两次 - the mechanics of frequency phrases belong to Duration and frequency complements.

Forms & patterns

The experiential paradigm in one place:

How 过 (experience) differs from 了 (completion):

Examples

• 我去过中国。 (Wǒ qùguo Zhōngguó.) - I have been to China.
• 你吃过北京烤鸭吗？ (Nǐ chīguo Běijīng kǎoyā ma?) - Have you ever eaten Beijing duck?
• 我没看过这部电影。 (Wǒ méi kànguo zhè bù diànyǐng.) - I haven’t seen this movie.
• 你以前来过这儿吗？ (Nǐ yǐqián láiguo zhèr ma?) - Have you been here before?
• 我坐过两次飞机。 (Wǒ zuòguo liǎng cì fēijī.) - I’ve flown twice (taken a plane two times).
• 我从来没听过这首歌。 (Wǒ cónglái méi tīngguo zhè shǒu gē.) - I’ve never heard this song.
• 他学过三年中文。 (Tā xuéguo sān nián Zhōngwén.) - He studied Chinese for three years (at some point).
• 她曾经在上海住过。 (Tā céngjīng zài Shànghǎi zhùguo.) - She once lived in Shanghai.
• 我们见过面。 (Wǒmen jiànguo miàn.) - We have met before.

Common mistakes

• 我去了过中国。 -> 我去过中国。 (Wǒ qùguo Zhōngguó.) - 过 already carries the aspect; don’t stack 了 on top of it.
• 我不吃过狗肉。 -> 我没吃过狗肉。 (Wǒ méi chīguo gǒuròu.) - experiential negation is 没…过, never 不…过.
• 我没去中国。 (meant as “I’ve never been”) -> 我没去过中国。 (Wǒ méi qùguo Zhōngguó.) - without 过 this only means “I didn’t go (this time)”; the “never / ever” sense needs 过.
• 你去中国过吗？ -> 你去过中国吗？ (Nǐ qùguo Zhōngguó ma?) - 过 attaches to the verb (去过), before the object, not at the end of the clause.
• 我没看过这部电影了。 -> 我没看过这部电影。 - 没 and 了 don’t co-occur; when the sentence is negative, drop the 了.

Tips

• Map 过 to English “have you ever…?” / “I’ve never…”. If that phrasing fits, 过 is your suffix - and its negative partner is always 没, not 不.
• Remember the split with 了: 过 keeps its suffix under negation (没…过), but 了 loses it (没 + verb). One survives 没, the other vanishes.
• 过 is neutral tone (guo) as an aspect marker, but a written accent won’t hurt you - just never confuse it with the full verb 过 guò (“to pass, to cross”).
• “Been there and back”: 过 usually implies the experience is finished and no longer current, so it pairs naturally with 曾经 (formerly) and 以前 (before), and clashes with “right now.”

In short

To say an action is happening right now, put 在 (zài) - or the more explicit 正在 (zhèngzài) - before the verb, often with 呢 (ne) at the end: 他在吃饭呢 (tā zài chī fàn ne, he’s eating). To say a state is simply holding - a door standing open, a person seated - put 着 (zhe) right after the verb: 门开着 (mén kāi zhe, the door is open). One is a moving action; the other is a frozen state.

The rule

Mandarin has no tense, so “is doing” and “is in a state” are marked by two different aspect words, and they sit in two different places.

Step 1 - Action in progress: 在 / 正在 + Verb. Put the marker before the verb:

Subject + 在 / 正在 + Verb (+ Object) (+ 呢)

• 在 (zài) is the everyday default: 我在看电视 (wǒ zài kàn diànshì, I’m watching TV).
• 正在 (zhèngzài) is more explicit - “right now, in the middle of it”: 他正在打电话 (tā zhèngzài dǎ diànhuà, he’s on the phone right now).
• 正 (zhèng) alone highlights a coincidence and usually leans on a final 呢: 我正想给你打电话呢 (wǒ zhèng xiǎng gěi nǐ dǎ diànhuà ne, I was just about to call you).
• The sentence-final 呢 softens the whole thing into “-ing” and can even carry the progressive by itself: 你干嘛呢？ (nǐ gànmá ne?, what are you up to?).

Do not add 是 and do not conjugate: the marker attaches straight to the plain verb.

Step 2 - State that persists: Verb + 着. Put 着 (a toneless particle, zhe) directly after the verb. It says the state produced by the verb is still holding:

Verb + 着 (+ Object)

门开着 (mén kāi zhe) = the door stands open; 他站着 (tā zhàn zhe) = he is standing; 他穿着一件红衬衫 (tā chuān zhe yī jiàn hóng chènshān, he’s wearing a red shirt). This is a snapshot, not a motion.

Step 3 - 着 also links a manner to a main verb: V1 着 + V2. The first verb describes how the second is done:

Verb1 + 着 + Verb2 = do V2 while / by V1-ing

他笑着说 (tā xiào zhe shuō, he said with a smile), 站着看书 (zhàn zhe kàn shū, read standing up).

Step 4 - 着 in existential sentences: Place + Verb 着 + Thing. A location + V着 presents something as sitting there: 桌子上放着一本书 (zhuōzi shàng fàng zhe yī běn shū, there’s a book lying on the table).

Step 5 - Negate with 没(有), not 不. An ongoing action or a holding state is negated with 没: 他没在睡觉 (tā méi zài shuìjiào, he isn’t sleeping), 门没开着 (mén méi kāi zhe, the door isn’t open). Using 不 here is wrong - 不在 reads as “isn’t present / isn’t here.”

Forms & patterns

Progressive markers, weakest to most explicit:

The core contrast - 在 (moving action) vs 着 (frozen state):

The three jobs of 着:

(In 一本书 and 一幅画 the number 一 is written yī in citation but is pronounced yì before the measure word here - see Pinyin and tones.)

Examples

• 他在看电视。 (Tā zài kàn diànshì.) - He’s watching TV.
• 我正在做饭呢。 (Wǒ zhèngzài zuò fàn ne.) - I’m cooking right now.
• 你在做什么呢？ (Nǐ zài zuò shénme ne?) - What are you doing?
• 孩子们在操场上玩儿。 (Háizimen zài cāochǎng shàng wánr.) - The children are playing on the playground.
• 他没在睡觉，他在工作。 (Tā méi zài shuìjiào, tā zài gōngzuò.) - He isn’t sleeping, he’s working.
• 门开着，请进。 (Mén kāi zhe, qǐng jìn.) - The door’s open, please come in.
• 他站着看书。 (Tā zhàn zhe kàn shū.) - He reads standing up.
• 她笑着跟我打招呼。 (Tā xiào zhe gēn wǒ dǎ zhāohu.) - She greeted me with a smile.
• 桌子上放着一本书。 (Zhuōzi shàng fàng zhe yī běn shū.) - There’s a book lying on the table.
• 外面下着雨呢。 (Wàimiàn xià zhe yǔ ne.) - It’s raining outside.

Common mistakes

• 他是在看电视。 -> 他在看电视。 (Tā zài kàn diànshì.) - The progressive 在 attaches straight to the verb; do not insert 是.
• 他不在睡觉。 -> 他没在睡觉。 (Tā méi zài shuìjiào.) - Negate an ongoing action with 没(有), never 不; 不在 would mean “isn’t here.”
• 他笑说。 -> 他笑着说。 (Tā xiào zhe shuō.) - A manner verb needs 着 to hang onto the main verb: V1着 V2 = do V2 in the manner of V1.
• 他在穿着衣服。 (meant as “he has clothes on”) -> 他穿着衣服。 (Tā chuān zhe yīfu.) - For a static “wearing” state use V着 alone; 在…着 forces the dynamic “in the act of getting dressed” reading.
• 桌子上着放一本书。 -> 桌子上放着一本书。 (Zhuōzi shàng fàng zhe yī běn shū.) - 着 comes right after its verb, not before it.

Tips

• The two-picture test: 在 = a video clip (something is moving - 他在坐下, tā zài zuò xià, he’s sitting down); 着 = a still photo (a pose or arrangement is frozen - 他坐着, tā zuò zhe, he’s seated). Pick the marker that matches what you’d film.
• Everyday speech often drops the marker and lets a final 呢 do the work: 你吃饭呢？ already means “eating, are you?” Reach for 正在 only when you want to stress “right this minute” or sound a shade more formal.
• Same character, different jobs: the aspect particle 着 is toneless (zhe), but read zháo it is a resultative meaning “manage to / hit the mark,” as in 睡着 (shuìzháo, to fall asleep). Do not let 睡着了 (fell asleep) blur into 睡着 the durative - the tone and the sense both differ.
• Neither 在 nor 着 marks tense. 他在看书 can be “is” or “was” reading; the time comes from a time word (今天, 那时候) or context, not from the aspect marker.

In short

Doubling a verb - 看 (kàn, “look”) -> 看看 (kànkan, “have a look”) - or putting 一下 (yíxià) after it makes the action short, casual and softer, the way English adds “a bit,” “a little,” or “have a …” One-syllable verbs double as VV (看看), two-syllable verbs as ABAB (学习学习), and 一下 attaches to either.

The rule

Reduplication and 一下 both express the tentative aspect: the action is brief, light, low-pressure, “just a little.” They are the everyday way to soften a request or a suggestion, so they turn a blunt order into something friendly.

Step 1 - Only controllable action verbs. You can reduplicate a verb you deliberately do - 看 (kàn), 说 (shuō, “speak”), 试 (shì, “try”), 想 (xiǎng, “think”), 休息 (xiūxi, “rest”). You cannot reduplicate states or non-actions: 是 (shì, “be”), 有 (yǒu, “have”), 在 (zài, “be at”), 喜欢 (xǐhuan, “like”) stay single.

Step 2 - One-syllable verbs: VV. Just repeat the verb; the second syllable becomes neutral tone. 看 -> 看看 (kànkan), 说 -> 说说 (shuōshuo), 想 -> 想想 (xiǎngxiang, “think it over”). You may also drop an unstressed 一 in the middle - V 一 V: 看一看 (kàn yi kàn), 试一试 (shì yi shì). The 一 here is toneless, and this infix works for one-syllable verbs only.

Step 3 - Two-syllable verbs: ABAB. Repeat the whole word, not each syllable. 学习 (xuéxí, “study”) -> 学习学习 (xuéxí xuéxí), 休息 -> 休息休息 (xiūxi xiūxi), 介绍 (jièshào, “introduce”) -> 介绍介绍. Never AABB (not 学学习习), and no 一 infix with two-syllable verbs.

Step 4 - V 一下 = the same idea, any verb. Put 一下 after the verb: 看一下 (kàn yíxià, “have a look”), 等一下 (děng yíxià, “wait a moment”), 介绍一下 (jièshào yíxià, “introduce briefly”). It means “do it once / briefly” and, unlike V 一 V, it happily attaches to two-syllable verbs too. Note the sandhi: 一 is citation yī, but before the 4th-tone 下 (xià) it is pronounced yí, so 一下 = yíxià.

Step 5 - Objects and past tense. An object comes after the whole reduplicated verb: 看看电视 (kànkan diànshì, “watch a bit of TV”), 用一下你的电脑 (yòng yíxià nǐ de diànnǎo, “use your computer for a sec”). For a brief completed action, slot 了 inside: monosyllabic 看了看 (kàn le kàn, “took a quick look”), 想了想 (xiǎng le xiǎng, “thought for a moment”).

Forms & patterns

How each verb type reduplicates:

V 一 V vs V 一下 - overlapping, but not identical:

Examples

• 你看看这本书。 (Nǐ kànkan zhè běn shū.) - Have a look at this book.
• 我想想。 (Wǒ xiǎngxiang.) - Let me think for a moment.
• 请等一下。 (Qǐng děng yíxià.) - Please wait a moment.
• 我们休息休息吧。 (Wǒmen xiūxi xiūxi ba.) - Let’s take a little rest.
• 你试一试这件衣服。 (Nǐ shì yi shì zhè jiàn yīfu.) - Try this piece of clothing on.
• 我给你介绍一下。 (Wǒ gěi nǐ jièshào yíxià.) - Let me introduce them to you briefly.
• 他想了想，然后说…… (Tā xiǎng le xiǎng, ránhòu shuō……) - He thought for a moment, then said …
• 我可以用一下你的电脑吗？ (Wǒ kěyǐ yòng yíxià nǐ de diànnǎo ma?) - Can I use your computer for a sec?
• 我们商量商量这件事。 (Wǒmen shāngliang shāngliang zhè jiàn shì.) - Let’s talk this matter over a bit.
• 你尝尝这个菜。 (Nǐ chángchang zhège cài.) - Have a taste of this dish.

Common mistakes

• 学学习习 -> 学习学习 (xuéxí xuéxí) - Two-syllable verbs repeat as a whole word (ABAB), never syllable by syllable (AABB).
• 学习一学习 -> 学习学习 / 学习一下 - The 一 infix (V 一 V) works only for one-syllable verbs; a two-syllable verb uses plain ABAB or 一下.
• 我正在看看电视。 -> 我在看电视。 / 我看看电视。 - Reduplication means a brief, casual action, so it clashes with the ongoing 在/正在.
• 看看了 -> 看了看 (kàn le kàn) - For a brief completed action the 了 goes inside, between the two verbs, not after them.
• 我是是学生。 -> 我是学生。 - Only controllable action verbs reduplicate; 是/有/在 and stative verbs cannot.

Tips

• Reduplication and 一下 are politeness tools. 看看 / 看一下 turn a blunt “Look!” into a friendly “Have a look,” and pair naturally with the suggestion particle 吧: 试试吧 (shì shi ba, “go on, give it a try”).
• In one-syllable reduplication the second syllable is neutral tone: 看看 = kànkan, not kànkàn. The stress - and the meaning - sit on the first syllable.
• When unsure, reach for 一下: it attaches to any action verb, one syllable or two, and never disturbs the verb’s own tones. Just say it yíxià (一 -> 2nd tone before the 4th-tone 下).
• Reduplication is not counting. To say “read it twice / look it over once” you use the frequency words 次/遍 instead (see Duration and frequency complements); 看看 only ever means “a little look,” with no number attached.

In short

These five single-syllable adverbs all sit after the subject and right before the verb, and each adds a shade of timing or scope English hides in tone of voice. Learn them in pairs: 就 (jiù, sooner than expected) vs 才 (cái, later than expected); 再 (zài, again in the future) vs 又 (yòu, again, already happened); and 还 (hái, still / also). Get the pair contrasts right and the placement takes care of itself.

The rule

Step 1 - They are pre-verbal adverbs. Every one of these words lives inside the clause, in the same slot: after the subject (and after any time word), before the verb and before negation. English lets “again,” “still” and “too” drift to the end of a sentence; Chinese never does.

Subject (+ time word) + 就 / 才 / 再 / 又 / 还 + Verb

Step 2 - 就 vs 才 = early vs late. Same clock, opposite attitude. 就 (jiù) says the event happened sooner / faster / more easily than expected, and it normally pairs with 了: 他六点就来了 (tā liù diǎn jiù lái le, he came as early as six). 才 (cái) says it happened later / more slowly / with more effort than expected, and it drops 了: 他九点才来 (tā jiǔ diǎn cái lái, he didn’t come until nine). 就 also means “right away” (我就来, wǒ jiù lái, I’m coming) and “only / just” a small scope (我就要一个, wǒ jiù yào yí ge, I only want one); 才 likewise means “only” a small amount (才三块钱, cái sān kuài qián, only three yuan).

Step 3 - 再 vs 又 = future again vs realized again. Both are English “again,” split by whether the repetition has happened yet. 再 (zài) is a repetition not yet realized - future plans, requests, “one more time” - and takes no 了: 明天再来 (míngtiān zài lái, come again tomorrow), 请再说一遍 (qǐng zài shuō yí biàn, please say it once more). 又 (yòu) is a repetition already realized - it happened, and usually carries 了: 他又来了 (tā yòu lái le, he’s come again).

Step 4 - 还 = still / also. 还 (hái) marks continuation - 他还在睡觉 (tā hái zài shuìjiào, he’s still sleeping) - and, with 没(有), “not yet”: 我还没吃饭 (wǒ hái méi chī fàn, I haven’t eaten yet). It also adds an item, “also / in addition”: 我还要一杯茶 (wǒ hái yào yì bēi chá, I’d also like a cup of tea). (Its comparison-boosting sense, “even more,” belongs to the comparison lesson.)

Forms & patterns

The five at a glance:

就 vs 才 - one clock, two attitudes:

再 vs 又 - “again,” forward vs back:

Examples

• 我马上就来。 (Wǒ mǎshàng jiù lái.) - I’ll be right there.
• 他六点就起床了。 (Tā liù diǎn jiù qǐchuáng le.) - He got up as early as six.
• 我十一点才睡觉。 (Wǒ shíyī diǎn cái shuìjiào.) - I didn’t go to bed until eleven.
• 她学了三年才学会。 (Tā xué le sān nián cái xuéhuì.) - It took her three years to master it.
• 你明天再来吧。 (Nǐ míngtiān zài lái ba.) - Come again tomorrow.
• 请再说一遍。 (Qǐng zài shuō yí biàn.) - Please say it once more.
• 他今天又迟到了。 (Tā jīntiān yòu chídào le.) - He was late again today.
• 他还在睡觉。 (Tā hái zài shuìjiào.) - He’s still sleeping.
• 我还没吃饭。 (Wǒ hái méi chī fàn.) - I haven’t eaten yet.
• 我还要一杯咖啡。 (Wǒ hái yào yì bēi kāfēi.) - I’d also like a cup of coffee.

Common mistakes

• 他九点才来了。 -> 他九点才来。 - 才 (later than expected) rejects the completion 了; only 就 and 又 pair with it here.
• 他昨天再来了。 -> 他昨天又来了。 - a repetition that has already happened takes 又; 再 is only for repetitions not yet realized.
• 请你又说一遍。 -> 请你再说一遍。 - a request is a not-yet-done repetition, so it needs 再, never 又.
• 我想去再。 -> 我想再去。 - 再 is an adverb; it goes before the verb, never at the end like English “again.”
• 他没还来。 -> 他还没来。 - “not yet” is 还没(有); the adverb 还 stands before 没, never after it.

Tips

• 就 vs 才 is attitude, not time: the same “six o’clock” is early praise with 就 (六点就来了, eager) or a late complaint with 才 (六点才来, kept us waiting). Memory hook: 就 comes with 了 (it’s done, and fast); 才 refuses 了 (it dragged).
• 再 vs 又 by direction: 再 points forward (again, not yet - plans and requests), 又 points back (again, already - facts you observe). If you can say “please… again,” it is 再; if you just watched it happen, it is 又.
• Watch the homograph: 还 read hái means “still / also,” but the same character read huán is a different verb, “to return (something)” - 还书 (huán shū, return a book). Context and tone keep them apart.
• Tone of 一 before these: it is yī alone but yí before a 4th tone (一遍, yí biàn) and yì before other tones (一杯, yì bēi), so 再说一遍 and 还要一杯 shift the 一 you hear.

In short

Coverbs (介词, jiècí) are little verb-like words - 从 (cóng, “from”), 给 (gěi, “to/for”), 跟 (gēn, “with”), 对 (duì, “toward”), 离 (lí, “from” of distance), 往 (wǎng, “toward”), 为 (wèi, “for”) - that grab a noun to build a prepositional phrase. That phrase always sits before the main verb, never after it: 我给你打电话。 (Wǒ gěi nǐ dǎ diànhuà.) = I’ll call you, literally “I to-you make-call.”

The rule

A coverb is called 介词 (“introducing word”) because it introduces a noun - a source, a person, a destination - ahead of the action. Most of them are borrowed from real verbs (给 also means “give”, 跟 “follow”, 往/对 “head toward, face”), but as coverbs they lean on a following main verb and behave like English prepositions. The skeleton is:

Subject + Coverb + Noun + Main Verb + (rest)

Step 1 - build the coverb phrase. Put the coverb in front of its noun: 从北京 (cóng Běijīng, “from Beijing”), 跟朋友 (gēn péngyou, “with a friend”), 对老师 (duì lǎoshī, “toward the teacher”).

Step 2 - place the whole phrase before the verb. This is the opposite of English word order. English says “come from Beijing” (phrase last); Mandarin says 从北京来 (from-Beijing come). So 我从北京来 (Wǒ cóng Běijīng lái) = I come from Beijing, never 我来从北京.

Step 3 - negate and modify in front of the coverb. Adverbs and negation (不 bù, 没 méi, 也 yě, 都 dōu, 常 cháng) attach to the coverb, because the coverb phrase and its verb form one unit: 我不给你打电话 (Wǒ bù gěi nǐ dǎ diànhuà, “I won’t call you”), 我常跟他见面 (Wǒ cháng gēn tā jiànmiàn, “I often meet with him”).

What each coverb marks. 从 = a starting point you move away from, in space or time (从三点 cóng sān diǎn, “from three o’clock”). 给 = the recipient or beneficiary of the action. 跟 = the other party you do something with or to (跟他说 gēn tā shuō, “say to him”). 对 = the target of an attitude or action (对我笑 duì wǒ xiào, “smile at me”; 对身体好 duì shēntǐ hǎo, “good for the body”). 往 = the direction motion heads in. 为 = the person or cause something is done for.

Two special frames. The paired 从……到…… (cóng…dào…, “from A to B”) spans a range: 从这儿到那儿 (cóng zhèr dào nàr, “from here to there”). And 离 is the odd one out - it usually takes no action verb, just a distance or a 近/远 (jìn/yuǎn, near/far): A + 离 + B + 近/远, as in 我家离公司很近 (Wǒ jiā lí gōngsī hěn jìn, “my home is close to the office”).

Forms & patterns

The seven coverbs at a glance:

Negation and adverbs go in front of the coverb, not in front of the main verb:

Examples

• 我从上海来。 (Wǒ cóng Shànghǎi lái.) - I come from Shanghai.
• 请给我打电话。 (Qǐng gěi wǒ dǎ diànhuà.) - Please call me.
• 我想跟你一起去。 (Wǒ xiǎng gēn nǐ yīqǐ qù.) - I’d like to go with you.
• 他对我很好。 (Tā duì wǒ hěn hǎo.) - He is very nice to me.
• 我家离火车站很近。 (Wǒ jiā lí huǒchēzhàn hěn jìn.) - My home is close to the train station.
• 往前走，然后往右拐。 (Wǎng qián zǒu, ránhòu wǎng yòu guǎi.) - Go straight ahead, then turn right.
• 从这儿到学校要十分钟。 (Cóng zhèr dào xuéxiào yào shí fēnzhōng.) - From here to school takes ten minutes.
• 谢谢你为我做的一切。 (Xièxie nǐ wèi wǒ zuò de yīqiè.) - Thank you for everything you did for me.
• 我没跟他说这件事。 (Wǒ méi gēn tā shuō zhè jiàn shì.) - I didn’t tell him about this.
• 我对中国文化很感兴趣。 (Wǒ duì Zhōngguó wénhuà hěn gǎn xìngqù.) - I’m very interested in Chinese culture.

Common mistakes

• 我来从北京。 -> 我从北京来。 (Wǒ cóng Běijīng lái.) - The coverb phrase (从北京) goes before the main verb, not after it as in English.
• 我家从火车站很近。 -> 我家离火车站很近。 (Wǒ jiā lí huǒchēzhàn hěn jìn.) - Distance (near/far) uses 离; 从 only marks a point you move away from.
• 我给他不打电话。 -> 我不给他打电话。 (Wǒ bù gěi tā dǎ diànhuà.) - Negation attaches to the coverb, so 不/没 sit in front of 给, not in front of the main verb.
• 他很好对我。 -> 他对我很好。 (Tā duì wǒ hěn hǎo.) - “nice to me” reverses in Mandarin: the 对 phrase comes first, then the predicate 很好.
• 我一起跟你去。 -> 我跟你一起去。 (Wǒ gēn nǐ yīqǐ qù.) - The coverb phrase 跟你 leads; the adverb 一起 sits right before the verb 去.

Tips

• Coverbs are “half-verbs”: remember that 给/对/跟/往/为 can be full verbs elsewhere, but here they form a from / with / to / for phrase that always lands before the real verb. Chinese front-loads the preposition.
• 从 vs 离: 从 = the point you start from and move away (从 A 到 B, 从三点), so it pairs with a verb of motion; 离 = the gap between two fixed points, so it pairs with 近/远/a distance and usually has no action verb. No movement -> use 离.
• Anything that modifies the action - 不, 没, 也, 都, 常 - clamps onto the front of the coverb, not the verb: 不给你打电话, 也跟他去, 都对我好.
• Don’t confuse coverb 为 (wèi, “for the sake of someone”) with 为了 (wèile, “in order to”) + a purpose - that construction belongs to Purpose clauses (为了/为…而). Note too that 为 has a second reading, wéi (as in 认为), which is not this coverb.

In short

To say “A is more [adjective] than B,” put 比 (bǐ, compared to) between the two nouns and drop the 很: A 比 B + Adjective - 我比你高 (Wǒ bǐ nǐ gāo, I’m taller than you). For “as [adj] as” use 跟…一样 (gēn…yíyàng), for “not as [adj] as” use 没有 (méiyǒu), and for “even more / the most” use 更 (gèng) and 最 (zuì).

The rule

Step 1 - “More than” = A 比 B + Adjective, with NO 很. The coverb 比 (bǐ) sets B as the yardstick: whatever follows is where A comes out on top. The frame is:

A + 比 + B + Adjective

我比你高 (Wǒ bǐ nǐ gāo) = “I’m taller than you.” The catch: the neutral 很 that a plain adjective needs (see Adjectival predicate and degree adverbs) is dropped inside a 比 sentence - 比 itself already means “more,” so 我比你很高 is wrong. The same goes for 太 / 非常: never put an intensifier in front of the adjective here.

Step 2 - Say by how much. To add the size of the gap, the difference goes after the adjective, not before:

• Adj + 一点儿 / 一些 - a little -er: 高一点儿 (gāo yìdiǎnr, a little taller).
• Adj + 得多 / 多了 / 很多 - much -er: 高得多 (gāo de duō, much taller), 高多了 (gāo duō le).
• Adj + [number + unit] - by an exact amount: 大三岁 (dà sān suì, three years older), 高五厘米 (gāo wǔ límǐ, 5 cm taller).

For a vaguer “even more,” put 更 (gèng) or 还 (hái) before the adjective instead: 我比你更高 (Wǒ bǐ nǐ gèng gāo, I’m even taller than you). Remember the geometry: intensifier-that-works goes after (得多, 一点儿) or you switch to 更 / 还 before; plain 很 / 太 are simply out.

Step 3 - “The same as” = A 跟 B 一样 (+ Adj). Use 跟…一样 (gēn…yíyàng) for equality. 我跟你一样高 (Wǒ gēn nǐ yíyàng gāo) = “I’m as tall as you.” Alone, 我跟你一样 (Wǒ gēn nǐ yíyàng) = “I’m the same as you.” Note 一样 is written yíyàng: the 一 shifts to 2nd tone before the 4th-tone 样. The negative is 不一样 (bù yíyàng, not the same): 我跟你不一样. Here too, 一样 links straight to the adjective - no 很 after it.

Step 4 - “Not as … as” = A 没有 B + Adj. The everyday negative comparison uses 没有 (méiyǒu), not 不比: 我没有你高 (Wǒ méiyǒu nǐ gāo) = “I’m not as tall as you.” You may add 那么 (nàme, that) for emphasis: 我没有你那么高 (Wǒ méiyǒu nǐ nàme gāo, I’m not as tall as you are).

Step 5 - “Even more / the most” = 更 and 最. 更 (gèng) marks “even more” against something already in view: 这个更好 (Zhège gèng hǎo, this one’s even better). 最 (zuì) is the superlative “most”: 这个最好 (Zhège zuì hǎo, this one’s the best), 我最喜欢中文 (Wǒ zuì xǐhuan Zhōngwén, I like Chinese the most). Both sit before the adjective or verb.

Step 6 - The 有点儿 / 一点儿 trap. Two look-alikes that are NOT interchangeable:

• 有点儿 + Adj (yǒudiǎnr) sits before the adjective and means “a bit (too) …,” almost always about something unwanted: 有点儿贵 (yǒudiǎnr guì, a bit too expensive).
• Adj + 一点儿 (yìdiǎnr) sits after the adjective and is the comparative “a little more …,” neutral, common in requests: 贵一点儿 (guì yìdiǎnr, a little more expensive).

Forms & patterns

The five comparison frames:

Degree-of-difference tails inside a 比 sentence (all sit after the adjective):

The two “a little” words - position decides the meaning:

Examples

• 我比你高。 (Wǒ bǐ nǐ gāo.) - I’m taller than you.
• 今天比昨天热。 (Jīntiān bǐ zuótiān rè.) - It’s hotter today than yesterday.
• 他比我大三岁。 (Tā bǐ wǒ dà sān suì.) - He’s three years older than me.
• 这个比那个贵一点儿。 (Zhège bǐ nàge guì yìdiǎnr.) - This one is a little more expensive than that one.
• 坐地铁比开车快得多。 (Zuò dìtiě bǐ kāichē kuài de duō.) - Taking the subway is much faster than driving.
• 我跟你一样大。 (Wǒ gēn nǐ yíyàng dà.) - I’m the same age as you.
• 今天没有昨天冷。 (Jīntiān méiyǒu zuótiān lěng.) - Today isn’t as cold as yesterday.
• 这个更好。 (Zhège gèng hǎo.) - This one is even better.
• 我最喜欢喝茶。 (Wǒ zuì xǐhuan hē chá.) - I like drinking tea the most.
• 这件衣服有点儿小。 (Zhè jiàn yīfu yǒudiǎnr xiǎo.) - This piece of clothing is a bit too small.

Common mistakes

• 我比你很高。 -> 我比你高。 (Wǒ bǐ nǐ gāo.) - Never use 很 / 太 / 非常 in a 比 sentence; 比 already means “more.” To intensify, add a tail (高得多) or use 更 / 还 before the adjective.
• 我比你一点儿高。 -> 我比你高一点儿。 - The “a little” tail 一点儿 goes after the adjective, not before it.
• 我不比你高。 -> 我没有你高。 - For everyday “not as tall as,” the negative is 没有, not 不比. (不比 is a marked “no more … than” that pushes back on an assumption.)
• 今天一点儿冷。 -> 今天有点儿冷。 - “A bit too [something unwanted]” is 有点儿 + Adj (before the adjective); 一点儿 goes after and means a comparative “a little more.”
• 我跟你一样很高。 -> 我跟你一样高。 - No 很 after 一样 either; 一样 links straight to the adjective.

Tips

• The one golden rule of 比: no 很 / 太 / 非常. English “much taller” tempts you to reach for an intensifier, but 比 already carries “more” - put the amount after (高得多, 高一点儿) or switch to 更 / 还 before. This is the single most common 比 slip.
• Mnemonic for the look-alikes: 有点儿 comes before and complains (“there’s a bit of a problem”); 一点儿 comes after and compares or requests. 有点儿贵 = “a bit too pricey (ugh)”; 贵一点儿 = “a bit pricier (than the other).”
• Everyday negative = 没有, not 不比. To say “not as [adj] as,” use A 没有 B + Adj; tack on 那么 for extra force (没有你那么高).
• 比 can also compare how you do something, sitting inside a 得 manner complement: 他跑得比我快 (Tā pǎo de bǐ wǒ kuài, he runs faster than me) - that structure lives in Manner and state complement (V 得…).

In short

Three auxiliaries cover “should” and “must,” and they line up by force: 应该 (yīnggāi, should / ought to) is advice, 得 (děi, gotta / have to) is everyday spoken necessity, and 必须 (bìxū, must) is a hard rule. All three sit right before the main verb. The catch is the negative: only 应该 flips to 不应该; 得 and 必须 have no 不- form - “needn’t” becomes 不用 (búyòng) or 不必 (búbì).

The rule

Like every modal (see Modal verbs (会/能/可以/想/要)), these are auxiliaries in a fixed slot:

Subject + (adverb) + Modal + Verb (+ Object)

So “you should rest more” is 你应该多休息 (nǐ yīnggāi duō xiūxi): subject 你, modal 应该, then the verb phrase. Any adverb goes in front of the modal. Now the three words, from softest to strongest:

应该 (yīnggāi) - should, ought to. Advice, moral duty, or what you reasonably expect. It negates cleanly to 不应该 (bù yīnggāi, shouldn’t). In speech it often shortens to just 该 (gāi): 你该走了 (nǐ gāi zǒu le, it’s time you left). 应该 has a second job - likelihood: 他应该已经到了 (tā yīnggāi yǐjīng dào le, he should have arrived by now), an inference, not a duty.

得 (děi) - have to, gotta. Colloquial, spoken necessity - what circumstances force on you. 我得走了 (wǒ děi zǒu le, I’ve got to go). Two things to nail. First the sound: this modal is děi, 3rd tone. The character 得 also spells dé (the verb “to obtain”) and the neutral-tone particle de that follows a verb to mark manner - that particle belongs to Manner and state complement (V 得…) and is a different structure entirely. The obligation one is always děi and always before the verb. Second: 得 (děi) has no negative of its own - you never say 不得 for “don’t have to”; use 不用 / 不必 instead.

必须 (bìxū) - must. Strong, often written or official: rules, requirements, conditions. 你必须按时完成作业 (nǐ bìxū ànshí wánchéng zuòyè, you must finish the homework on time). It, too, takes no 不 directly (不必须 is wrong): “needn’t” is 不必 (búbì) or 不用, and “must not / it’s forbidden” is 不能 (bù néng) or 不许 (bùxǔ).

Negation is not symmetric - the one point to memorize. 应该 → 不应该 works. 得 and 必须 do not - reach for a different word depending on the meaning. Note the tone sandhi: 不 becomes bú before a 4th tone, so it is búbì (不必) and búyòng (不用). See the table below. (Written 不得 bùdé does exist, but it means “may not / is forbidden” - a formal prohibition, not “needn’t.”)

Questions. Add 吗 (你应该去吗？), or use A-not-A on 应该: 应不应该 / 该不该. 必须 is usually questioned with 吗 or 是不是, and 得 (děi) is rarely put into a question at all - use 用不用 (yòng bu yòng) instead.

Forms & patterns

The three obligation modals side by side:

How each one is negated (this is the tricky part):

Examples

• 你应该早点睡。 (Nǐ yīnggāi zǎodiǎn shuì.) - You should go to bed earlier.
• 我们应该帮助他。 (Wǒmen yīnggāi bāngzhù tā.) - We ought to help him.
• 你不应该说谎。 (Nǐ bù yīnggāi shuōhuǎng.) - You shouldn’t lie.
• 时间不早了，我得走了。 (Shíjiān bù zǎo le, wǒ děi zǒu le.) - It’s getting late; I have to go.
• 明天有考试，我得复习。 (Míngtiān yǒu kǎoshì, wǒ děi fùxí.) - There’s a test tomorrow, so I’ve got to review.
• 坐飞机必须带护照。 (Zuò fēijī bìxū dài hùzhào.) - To fly you must bring your passport.
• 学生必须穿校服。 (Xuésheng bìxū chuān xiàofú.) - Students must wear a uniform.
• 你不必担心。 (Nǐ búbì dānxīn.) - You don’t need to worry.
• 他应该已经到家了。 (Tā yīnggāi yǐjīng dào jiā le.) - He should be home by now.

Common mistakes

• 我不得走。 -> 我不用走。 (Wǒ búyòng zǒu.) - 得 (děi) has no 不- form; “don’t have to / needn’t” is 不用 or 不必.
• 你不必须来。 -> 你不必来。 (Nǐ búbì lái.) - never put 不 in front of 必须; its “needn’t” partner is 不必.
• 你应该不来。 -> 你不应该来。 (Nǐ bù yīnggāi lái.) - to say “shouldn’t,” 不 goes before the modal, giving 不应该.
• 我走得快点儿。 (meaning “I must hurry off”) -> 我得快点儿走。 (Wǒ děi kuài diǎnr zǒu.) - the obligation 得 is děi and comes before the verb; V + 得 (de) after a verb marks manner, a different structure.

Tips

• Sort them by strength: 应该 = advice (“you should”), 得 / 必须 = necessity (“you have to”). 得 is what you actually say out loud; 必须 sounds official and can land like an order, so for a gentle nudge reach for 应该.
• The character 得 has three jobs - dé “to obtain” (a full verb), the neutral-tone particle de after a verb (manner), and this modal děi. Same shape, three sounds; the obligation one is always děi and sits before the verb.
• Remember the asymmetry: only 应该 flips to 不应该. For 得 and 必须, switch words - 不用 / 不必 for “needn’t,” 不能 / 不许 for “forbidden.”
• False friend to watch: 必须 (bìxū, “must,” before a verb) vs 必需 (bìxū, “essential,” an adjective, as in 必需品 bìxūpǐn “necessities”). Identical sound, different character and job.

In short

A resultative complement is a second verb or adjective glued straight onto the main verb to say how the action turned out: 吃完 (chī wán, eat-finish) = “finish eating,” 听懂 (tīng dǒng, listen-understand) = “understand (by ear).” The pair is tight - the object and the particle 了 (le) go after it (吃完了饭), and to say the result was NOT reached you use 没 (méi), never 不: 没听懂 (méi tīng dǒng) = “didn’t catch it.”

The rule

Chinese verbs don’t change form, so to say an action succeeded, finished, or came out a certain way, you attach the result directly to the verb. The main verb names the action; the complement names its outcome. Together they behave almost like a single word.

Step 1 - Build the compound: Verb + Complement. The complement is a short verb or adjective describing the result of the action.

Subject + Verb + Complement (+ 了) + Object

• 看 (kàn, look) + 见 (jiàn, perceive) -> 看见 (kàn jiàn) = see
• 吃 (chī, eat) + 完 (wán, finish) -> 吃完 (chī wán) = finish eating
• 洗 (xǐ, wash) + 干净 (gānjìng, clean) -> 洗干净 (xǐ gānjìng) = wash clean

Step 2 - Nothing splits the pair. The complement sits immediately after the verb - no object, no 了 in between. The object and the completed-action 了 come after the whole compound: 我吃完了饭。 (Wǒ chī wán le fàn.) = “I finished my meal,” never 我吃了完饭. You can also close the sentence with 了 after the object: 我吃完饭了。 (Wǒ chī wán fàn le.) - both are natural.

Step 3 - Negate with 没(有), and drop 了. Because the complement claims a result was reached, negating it says the result was not reached - and Chinese marks an unrealized outcome with 没(有) (méiyǒu): 我没吃完。 (Wǒ méi chī wán.) = “I didn’t finish eating.” As with any 没 sentence, the 了 disappears. Do not use 不 here (see mistakes) - 不 belongs to a different structure, the potential form 听不懂 “can’t understand,” taught in Potential and extreme-degree complements.

Step 4 - Ask about the result. Add 吗 (ma), or tack 没有 onto the end for an A-not-A question: 你听懂了吗？ / 你听懂了没有？ (Nǐ tīng dǒng le méiyǒu?) = “Did you understand (or not)?”

Forms & patterns

The workhorse complements - memorize each verb + complement pair as a unit:

The same verb across statement, negation and question - note that 了 vanishes under 没:

Examples

• 我吃完饭了。 (Wǒ chī wán fàn le.) - I’ve finished eating.
• 你听懂了吗？ (Nǐ tīng dǒng le ma?) - Did you understand?
• 我没听懂。 (Wǒ méi tīng dǒng.) - I didn’t catch it.
• 我找到工作了。 (Wǒ zhǎo dào gōngzuò le.) - I found a job.
• 我看见你妹妹了。 (Wǒ kàn jiàn nǐ mèimei le.) - I saw your younger sister.
• 作业我写完了。 (Zuòyè wǒ xiě wán le.) - I’ve finished the homework.
• 我学会了游泳。 (Wǒ xué huì le yóuyǒng.) - I’ve learned to swim.
• 你说错了。 (Nǐ shuō cuò le.) - You said it wrong.
• 我吃饱了。 (Wǒ chī bǎo le.) - I’m full.

Common mistakes

• 我吃了完饭。 -> 我吃完饭了。 (Wǒ chī wán fàn le.) - 了 cannot split the verb-complement pair; it goes after the whole unit.
• 我不听懂。 -> 我没听懂。 (Wǒ méi tīng dǒng.) - a result that failed to happen is negated with 没, not 不. (不 + result means “can’t,” a different, potential structure.)
• 我没找到了工作。 -> 我没找到工作。 (Wǒ méi zhǎo dào gōngzuò.) - once 没 marks the outcome as unreached, drop 了.
• 我完吃饭。 -> 我吃完饭。 (Wǒ chī wán fàn.) - the complement follows the verb; it can never lead.

Tips

• Read the compound as “verb-THEN-result”: 吃完 = eat -> finished, 看懂 = read -> understood, 找到 = look-for -> got it. The complement is the payoff of the action.
• 见 vs 懂: 看见/听见 mean only perceive (catch sight/sound of); 看懂/听懂 mean perceive and grasp the meaning. 我听见了 = “I heard a sound”; 我听懂了 = “I got what was said.”
• Negate with 没, always. If you feel the urge to say 不 + result, what you actually want is the potential form (听不懂 “can’t understand”) - a separate structure in Potential and extreme-degree complements.
• Learn the top pairs as whole words: 吃完, 看见, 听懂, 找到, 做好, 学会, 吃饱. They come up constantly and each acts like one lexical item.

In short

To say how someone does something - fast, well, beautifully - put the toneless particle 得 (de) right after the verb and hang a describing phrase on it: 他跑得很快 (tā pǎo de hěn kuài, he runs fast), 她唱得很好 (tā chàng de hěn hǎo, she sings well). The pattern is Verb + 得 + [description], and the description behaves like an adjectival predicate, so it usually takes 很 (hěn).

The rule

English packs manner into an adverb before or after the verb (“runs fast”, “sings well”). Mandarin puts the judgment after the verb as a complement, joined by 得.

Step 1 - Basic frame: Verb + 得 + complement. The complement is normally an adjective phrase describing the manner or the resulting quality:

Subject + Verb + 得 + (degree adverb) + Adjective

他写得很好 (tā xiě de hěn hǎo, he writes well). The 得 is toneless (de) and glues the verb to its complement - never leave it out.

Step 2 - Keep the 很. Just like a plain adjectival predicate (see Adjectival predicate and degree adverbs), a bare adjective after 得 sounds like an unfinished comparison. For a neutral statement add 很 or another degree adverb (太 tài “too”, 非常 fēicháng “extremely”, 有点儿 yǒudiǎnr “a bit”): 他跑得很快 = “he runs fast,” while a bare 他跑得快 implies “he runs faster (than someone).”

Step 3 - Negate inside the complement. Put 不 on the description, after 得, not on the verb: 他跑得不快 (tā pǎo de bú kuài, he doesn’t run fast). Saying 他不跑得快 is wrong - the verb itself is not being denied, its quality is.

Step 4 - With an object, repeat the verb. If the verb carries an object, 得 cannot reach across it. Say the verb once with the object, then say it again before 得:

Subject + Verb + Object + Verb + 得 + complement

他说汉语说得很好 (tā shuō Hànyǔ shuō de hěn hǎo, he speaks Chinese very well). You can also lift the object out front and drop the first verb: 他汉语说得很好 or 汉语他说得很好 - all three mean the same thing.

Step 5 - Ask about manner. Question the complement with A-not-A on the adjective (他跑得快不快？), with 吗 (他跑得快吗？), or open it up with 怎么样 (zěnmeyàng, “how”): 他汉语说得怎么样？ (how’s his Chinese?).

Forms & patterns

Core pattern, no object:

Handling an object (three equivalent orders):

Question forms:

Examples

• 他跑得很快。 (Tā pǎo de hěn kuài.) - He runs very fast.
• 你来得太早了。 (Nǐ lái de tài zǎo le.) - You came too early.
• 她唱得不好。 (Tā chàng de bù hǎo.) - She doesn’t sing well.
• 你说得对。 (Nǐ shuō de duì.) - You’re right (what you said is correct).
• 他起得很早，睡得很晚。 (Tā qǐ de hěn zǎo, shuì de hěn wǎn.) - He gets up early and goes to bed late.
• 他说汉语说得很好。 (Tā shuō Hànyǔ shuō de hěn hǎo.) - He speaks Chinese very well.
• 他汉字写得很漂亮。 (Tā Hànzì xiě de hěn piàoliang.) - He writes characters beautifully.
• 我今天吃得太多了。 (Wǒ jīntiān chī de tài duō le.) - I ate too much today.
• 他打篮球打得怎么样？ (Tā dǎ lánqiú dǎ de zěnmeyàng?) - How well does he play basketball?
• 孩子们玩得很开心。 (Háizimen wán de hěn kāixīn.) - The children played happily.

Common mistakes

• 他跑很快。 -> 他跑得很快。 (Tā pǎo de hěn kuài.) - A manner description hangs on the verb through 得; without it the sentence has no complement.
• 他说汉语得很好。 -> 他说汉语说得很好。 (Tā shuō Hànyǔ shuō de hěn hǎo.) - 得 must sit right after a verb, so when there’s an object you repeat the verb before 得.
• 他不说得好。 -> 他说得不好。 (Tā shuō de bù hǎo.) - Negate the complement with 不 after 得; you are not denying the action, only its quality.
• 他汉字写得漂亮。 -> 他汉字写得很漂亮。 (Tā Hànzì xiě de hěn piàoliang.) - A plain descriptive complement takes 很; a bare adjective sounds like an unfinished comparison.

Tips

• Word-order flip vs English: English says “runs fast,” Mandarin says “runs 得 fast” - the judgment always follows the verb. Train your ear to expect 得 the moment you want to rate how an action went.
• The complement copies adjectival-predicate rules exactly: it wants 很, it negates with 不… (not 没), and it does the 3-3 tone sandhi in 很好 -> hén hǎo (see Pinyin and tones). Note 不 shifts to bú before a 4th tone: 跑得不快 is pǎo de bú kuài.
• This 得 is toneless (de) and is a different word from the 得 (děi) “must” in the obligation lesson and the potential 得 in 跑得动 “able to run” - same character, three jobs. Here it only marks a manner or state complement.
• The repeat-the-verb rule feels clunky at first but is not optional in careful speech; when you want to avoid it, front the object as a topic: 这个字他写得很好 (this character, he writes it well).

In short

To say how long an action lasts, put the time span after the verb: 我看了两个小时的电视 (Wǒ kàn le liǎng ge xiǎoshí de diànshì) = I watched TV for two hours. To say how many times it happens, put a number + a verbal measure word (次 cì, 遍 biàn, 趟 tàng) after the verb: 我去过三次 (Wǒ qù guo sān cì) = I’ve been three times. Both are complements - they follow the verb, unlike a “when” phrase (昨天, 三点), which comes before it.

The rule

A duration complement (时量补语, shíliàng bǔyǔ) answers “for how long,” and a frequency complement (动量补语, dòngliàng bǔyǔ) answers “how many times.” Both sit behind the verb, and the only real puzzle is where the object goes.

Step 1 - Duration, no object. Just say Verb + 了 + time span: 我等了十分钟 (Wǒ děng le shí fēnzhōng) = I waited for ten minutes. Common spans: 五分钟 (wǔ fēnzhōng, five minutes), 两个小时 (liǎng ge xiǎoshí, two hours), 三天 (sān tiān, three days), 一年 (yì nián, one year).

Step 2 - Duration + a noun object: use 的. Slot the time span between verb and object, joined by optional 的:

Subject + Verb + 了 + Duration + (的) + Object

我学了三年（的）中文。 (Wǒ xué le sān nián (de) Zhōngwén.) = I studied Chinese for three years. The 的 is optional and only appears with a plain noun object.

Step 3 - Or copy the verb. An alternative, very common in speech, is to state the verb + object once, then repeat the verb to carry the complement:

Subject + Verb + Object + Verb + 了 + Duration

我学中文学了三年。 (Wǒ xué Zhōngwén xué le sān nián.) = same meaning. Verb-copying is the go-to when the object is long or when you also want a manner complement (see Manner and state complement (V 得…)).

Step 4 - Pronoun object: it jumps in front. A pronoun object cannot sit behind the complement; it clings right after the verb, and the time span or count follows it: 我等了你半个小时 (Wǒ děng le nǐ bàn ge xiǎoshí) = I waited for you half an hour; 我找了他两次 (Wǒ zhǎo le tā liǎng cì) = I looked for him twice.

Step 5 - Frequency with 次 / 遍 / 趟. Put number + measure word after the verb, before a noun object: 我看了两遍这本书 (Wǒ kàn le liǎng biàn zhè běn shū) = I read this book through twice. Choose by meaning - 次 is a plain tally of occurrences, 遍 stresses one complete run from start to finish, 趟 counts there-and-back trips.

Step 6 - “Still going” gets a second 了. With a duration, adding a sentence-final 了 means the action is still open: 我学了三年中文了 (Wǒ xué le sān nián Zhōngwén le) = I’ve been studying Chinese for three years (and still am). Without it, 我学了三年中文 reads as finished.

Forms & patterns

Where the complement and the object go, by object type:

Duration words - watch which take 个:

The three verbal measure words:

Examples

• 我看了两个小时的电视。 (Wǒ kàn le liǎng ge xiǎoshí de diànshì.) - I watched TV for two hours.
• 他学了三年中文。 (Tā xué le sān nián Zhōngwén.) - He studied Chinese for three years.
• 我等了你半个小时。 (Wǒ děng le nǐ bàn ge xiǎoshí.) - I waited for you half an hour.
• 这本书我看了两遍。 (Zhè běn shū wǒ kàn le liǎng biàn.) - I read this book through twice.
• 我去过三次北京。 (Wǒ qù guo sān cì Běijīng.) - I’ve been to Beijing three times.
• 请再说一遍。 (Qǐng zài shuō yí biàn.) - Please say it once more.
• 我去了一趟超市。 (Wǒ qù le yí tàng chāoshì.) - I made a trip to the supermarket.
• 我昨天睡了八个小时。 (Wǒ zuótiān shuì le bā ge xiǎoshí.) - Yesterday I slept for eight hours.
• 我找了他两次，都没找到。 (Wǒ zhǎo le tā liǎng cì, dōu méi zhǎodào.) - I looked for him twice and didn’t find him either time.

Common mistakes

• 我两个小时看了电视。 -> 我看了两个小时电视。 (Wǒ kàn le liǎng ge xiǎoshí diànshì.) - A time span is a complement, so it follows the verb; only a time point (昨天, 三点) goes in front.
• 我等了半个小时你。 -> 我等了你半个小时。 (Wǒ děng le nǐ bàn ge xiǎoshí.) - A pronoun object hugs the verb; the duration comes after the pronoun, never before it.
• 他学了三个天中文。 -> 他学了三天中文。 (Tā xué le sān tiān Zhōngwén.) - 天 and 年 are already measure-like and take no 个; 小时 / 月 / 星期 do take 个.
• 我看了两次这本书。 (meaning cover to cover) -> 我看了两遍这本书。 (Wǒ kàn le liǎng biàn zhè běn shū.) - 遍 stresses the whole thing from start to finish; 次 only tallies occurrences.
• 我没吃饭三天了。 -> 我三天没吃饭了。 (Wǒ sān tiān méi chī fàn le.) - In the negative “haven’t done X for a while,” the time span moves in front of the verb.

Tips

• The master contrast: when vs how long. A time point (昨天, 三点, 星期一) sits before the verb; a time span (两个小时, 三天) sits after it as a complement. Same clock words, opposite slots.
• 次 = tally, 遍 = whole run, 趟 = trip. Reach for 遍 with reading, listening or saying something all the way through (听一遍, 说一遍); reach for 趟 only with going and coming (去一趟, 跑一趟).
• The 的 in 学了三年的中文 is optional and only turns up with a plain noun object - drop it with pronouns and place names (never 学了三年的他).
• Two 了 keep the action open: 我学了三年中文了 = “three years so far, still going.” One 了 (我学了三年中文) closes it off as finished. The extra sentence-final 了 is the “up to now” switch.

In short

A directional complement is a short verb of motion glued onto the end of another verb to show which way the action goes. Add 来 (lái, toward the speaker) or 去 (qù, away from the speaker) - and often a path word like 上/下/进/出/回/过/起 (up/down/in/out/back/over/rise) - straight after the verb: 走进来 (zǒu jìnlái, walk in), 拿出去 (ná chūqù, take out). The choice of 来 vs 去 is fixed by where the speaker is standing.

The rule

Nine little verbs can ride on the back of a main verb to point its direction. Two are deictic (chosen by the speaker’s position): 来 (lái) and 去 (qù). Seven are path words: 上 (shàng, up), 下 (xià, down), 进 (jìn, in), 出 (chū, out), 回 (huí, back), 过 (guò, over/across), 起 (qǐ, up off a surface). A simple complement uses one of these; a compound complement stacks a path word plus a deictic.

Step 1 - Simple complement: Verb + one directional word. Attach a single directional verb to the action verb:

Verb + 来/去 or Verb + 上/下/进/出/回/过/起

回来 (huílái, come back), 坐下 (zuò xià, sit down), 拿去 (ná qù, take away), 跑出 (pǎo chū, run out), 站起 (zhàn qǐ, stand up). The deictic pair sets direction relative to you; the path words set it in space.

Step 2 - Compound complement: Verb + path + deictic. Put a path word first, the deictic 来/去 last:

Verb + 上/下/进/出/回/过/起 + 来/去

走进来 (zǒu jìnlái, walk in - toward me), 跑出去 (pǎo chūqù, run out - away), 拿上来 (ná shànglái, bring up here), 站起来 (zhàn qǐlái, stand up). Read it as two steps: which path (in, out, up…) and then toward or away from the speaker. The order never flips - the deictic always comes last.

Step 3 - Pick 来 or 去 by the speaker’s location. This is the whole game. 来 = the motion ends up where the speaker is; 去 = it heads away from the speaker. Standing upstairs you tell someone below 上来 (shànglái, come up); standing downstairs you say 下来 (xiàlái, come down). Same staircase, opposite word.

Step 4 - Place a location object in front of 来/去. A place noun can never sit after the deictic. For a simple complement it goes between the verb and 来/去; for a compound complement it slots between the path word and 来/去:

Verb (+ path) + Place + 来/去 -> 回家去 (huí jiā qù, go home), 走进屋来 (zǒu jìn wū lái, walk into the room)

Step 5 - A thing object may go either side. A non-place (thing) object can sit before 来/去 or after the whole complement: 拿一本书来 or 拿来一本书 (ná lái yī běn shū, bring a book); 拿出一本书来 or 拿出来一本书 (compound). Note 一 here is pronounced yì before the measure word, though written yī.

Negation and 了. For a motion that did not happen, negate with 没(有), not 不, and drop 了: 他没进来 (tā méi jìnlái, he didn’t come in). Completed motion takes 了 after the whole complement: 他跑出去了 (tā pǎo chūqù le). Here 来/去 as complements are usually said in the neutral tone (jìnlai, chūqu), though their citation tones are lái and qù. This lesson is about literal physical motion only - the figurative senses of 起来/下去/出来 belong to Figurative directional complements, and the potential inserts (拿得出来 / 拿不出来) belong to Potential and extreme-degree complements.

Forms & patterns

The nine directional words:

The compound complements (path + deictic). Note 起 pairs only with 来:

Where the object goes:

Examples

• 老师走进来了。 (Lǎoshī zǒu jìnlái le.) - The teacher walked in.
• 他站起来了。 (Tā zhàn qǐlái le.) - He stood up.
• 快下来，我在楼下！ (Kuài xiàlái, wǒ zài lóuxià!) - Come down quick, I’m downstairs!
• 我马上回去。 (Wǒ mǎshàng huíqù.) - I’ll go back right away.
• 孩子跑上楼去了。 (Háizi pǎo shàng lóu qù le.) - The child ran upstairs.
• 请你拿一杯水来。 (Qǐng nǐ ná yī bēi shuǐ lái.) - Please bring a glass of water.
• 他从包里拿出一本书来。 (Tā cóng bāo lǐ ná chū yī běn shū lái.) - He took a book out of his bag.
• 你上来吧，我在三楼。 (Nǐ shànglái ba, wǒ zài sān lóu.) - Come up, I’m on the third floor.
• 飞机飞过去了。 (Fēijī fēi guòqù le.) - The plane flew past (going away).

Common mistakes

• 他跑去出了。 -> 他跑出去了。 (Tā pǎo chūqù le.) - In a compound complement the path word (出) comes first and the deictic (去) last; never reverse them.
• 他走进来教室。 -> 他走进教室来。 (Tā zǒu jìn jiàoshì lái.) - A place object must sit in front of 来/去, between the path word and the deictic - never after the whole complement.
• 站起去。 -> 站起来。 (Zhàn qǐlái.) - 起 only pairs with 来 (起来); there is no 起去.
• (you are upstairs, calling someone up) 你上去吧。 -> 你上来吧。 (Nǐ shànglái ba.) - Choose 来 for motion toward where the speaker is; 去 points away, so 上去 would send them further from you.
• 昨天他不回来。 -> 昨天他没回来。 (Zuótiān tā méi huílái.) - A past motion that failed to happen is negated with 没(有), not 不.

Tips

• Build a compound complement in two clicks: first the path (in / out / up / down / back / over), then 来 or 去 to say “toward me” or “away from me.” 出 + 去 = 出去 (out and away); 出 + 来 = 出来 (out and toward me).
• The 来/去 test is “where am I?” Picture yourself in the scene. If the thing ends up next to you, it is 来; if it moves off, it is 去. This is stricter than English “come/go,” which speakers bend freely.
• Location nouns are picky, thing nouns are relaxed: a place must go before 来/去 (回家来, not 回来家), but a thing is happy on either side (带伞去 or 带去伞).
• 起 is the odd one out - it only ever takes 来 (起来, “up off a surface”), so there is no 起去 to worry about.

In short

Two everyday ways Chinese arranges arguments around the verb. First, a small class of “transfer” verbs takes two objects at once - a person, then a thing: 给我一本书 (gěi wǒ yì běn shū, give me a book), 教你汉语 (jiāo nǐ Hànyǔ, teach you Chinese) - recipient first, thing second. Second, Chinese loves to front a topic - pull the thing you’re talking about to the head of the sentence and comment on it: 这本书我看过 (zhè běn shū wǒ kànguo, this book, I’ve read it).

The rule

Part A - Double-object verbs. A handful of verbs let two objects follow the verb directly, with no preposition between them. The order is fixed:

Subject + Verb + Recipient (person) + Thing

The recipient - always a person or group - comes first; the thing transferred comes second: 老师教我们汉语 (lǎoshī jiāo wǒmen Hànyǔ, the teacher teaches us Chinese). Think “whom, then what.” This works only for verbs of giving, telling, teaching, asking and returning - 给 (gěi, give), 送 (sòng, give as a gift), 告诉 (gàosu, tell), 教 (jiāo, teach), 问 (wèn, ask), 还 (huán, return), 借 (jiè, lend). If the verb is not a transfer verb, you cannot stack two objects on it - route the recipient through the coverb 给 instead: 我给你做饭 (wǒ gěi nǐ zuò fàn, I’ll cook for you), never 我做你饭.

Part B - Topic-comment. Chinese is a topic-prominent language: the most natural way to open a sentence is with what you’re already talking about - the topic - and then say something about it - the comment.

Topic + Subject + Comment (predicate)

Step 1 - front the topic. Take a noun that is old, known, definite information (often the object of the verb) and move it to the very front: 我看过这本书 -> 这本书我看过 (this book, I’ve read it). No comma and no preposition are needed - the bare noun at the head is the topic.

Step 2 - leave a gap, don’t resume it. After fronting the object, the verb keeps its normal shape and you leave the object slot empty. English keeps a pronoun (“this book, I’ve read it”); Chinese drops it - say 这本书我看过, not 这本书我看过它.

Step 3 - the topic need not be the object. The topic can just set the scene, with the comment adding its own subject. A very common pattern is a “whole-part” topic: 他身体很好 (tā shēntǐ hěn hǎo, lit. he - health is good = he’s in good health), where 他 is the topic and 身体很好 the comment.

The disposal reordering with 把 and object-fronting inside a noun phrase (relative clauses) are different tools, owned by 把 disposal construction and Relative clauses and nominalization with 的.

Forms & patterns

Common double-object (transfer) verbs - recipient before thing:

The two arrangements side by side:

Examples

• 他给我一本书。 (Tā gěi wǒ yì běn shū.) - He gives me a book.
• 老师教我们汉语。 (Lǎoshī jiāo wǒmen Hànyǔ.) - The teacher teaches us Chinese.
• 请告诉我你的名字。 (Qǐng gàosu wǒ nǐ de míngzi.) - Please tell me your name.
• 我想问你一个问题。 (Wǒ xiǎng wèn nǐ yí ge wèntí.) - I’d like to ask you a question.
• 我送她一件礼物。 (Wǒ sòng tā yí jiàn lǐwù.) - I gave her a gift.
• 这本书我看过。 (Zhè běn shū wǒ kànguo.) - This book, I’ve read it.
• 中国我去过两次。 (Zhōngguó wǒ qùguo liǎng cì.) - China, I’ve been there twice.
• 那件事我不知道。 (Nà jiàn shì wǒ bù zhīdào.) - That matter, I don’t know about it.
• 今天的作业我做完了。 (Jīntiān de zuòyè wǒ zuòwán le.) - Today’s homework, I’ve finished it.
• 他身体很好。 (Tā shēntǐ hěn hǎo.) - He’s in good health.

Common mistakes

• 他给一本书我。 -> 他给我一本书。 (Tā gěi wǒ yì běn shū.) - the recipient (person) comes first, the thing second: whom, then what.
• 老师教汉语我们。 -> 老师教我们汉语。 (Lǎoshī jiāo wǒmen Hànyǔ.) - same fixed order; never put the thing before the person.
• 这本书我看过它。 -> 这本书我看过。 (Zhè běn shū wǒ kànguo.) - a fronted topic leaves an empty gap; don’t add a resumptive 它 the way English keeps “it.”
• 我做你一个蛋糕。 -> 我给你做一个蛋糕。 (Wǒ gěi nǐ zuò yí ge dàngāo.) - 做 is not a transfer verb, so it can’t take a double object; send the recipient through the coverb 给.
• 他说我一个秘密。 -> 他告诉我一个秘密。 (Tā gàosu wǒ yí ge mìmì.) - 说 (say) is not a transfer verb and takes no double object; “tell someone something” is 告诉.

Tips

• Memory hook for double objects: person before thing - “give me a book,” “teach us Chinese.” The recipient is a human; keep it next to the verb.
• The double-object club is small and all about transfer (give / send / tell / teach / ask / return / lend). If your verb isn’t one of those, don’t stack two objects - use 给 to introduce the recipient.
• Fronting a topic is not emphasis-for-drama - it’s the default, natural way to organize known information. Whenever the object is “this / that / the one we mentioned,” pulling it to the front reads more Chinese than leaving it after the verb.
• Topic-fronting versus 把: both move the object leftward, but 把 puts it after the subject and needs the marker (我把书看完了), while a topic sits at the very head with no marker (书我看完了). Different tools - see 把 disposal construction.

In short

的 (de, neutral tone) can glue a whole clause onto the front of a noun, giving Chinese its relative clauses: 我买的书 (wǒ mǎi de shū, “the book I bought”), 昨天来的人 (zuótiān lái de rén, “the person who came yesterday”). Drop the noun and 的 alone means “the … one”: 红的 (hóng de, “the red one”), 卖菜的 (mài cài de, “the one who sells vegetables”). There is no “who / which / that” - 的 does the whole job, and the describer always comes before the noun.

The rule

Lesson 4 gave you Modifier + 的 + Noun for single words (我的书, 红的花). The same frame stretches to a full clause: whatever describes the noun - however long - is packed in front of 的, and the noun comes last.

Step 1 - Put the describing clause first, then 的, then the noun. English hangs the clause after the noun with “who / which / that”; Chinese reverses this. Read a Chinese relative clause back-to-front from English:

• [我昨天买] 的书 (wǒ zuótiān mǎi de shū) - the book [I bought yesterday]
• [昨天来] 的人 (zuótiān lái de rén) - the person [who came yesterday]
• [会说中文] 的学生 (huì shuō Zhōngwén de xuésheng) - the student [who can speak Chinese]

Step 2 - No relative pronoun, no gap-filler. Chinese does not translate “who / which / that”, and it does not put a pronoun back into the hole the noun left. The frame is identical whether the noun is the subject or the object of the inner clause:

• Noun = subject: 会说中文的人 - the person who speaks Chinese (人 does the speaking).
• Noun = object: 我买的书 - the book that I bought (书 is what 买 acts on; the slot after 买 stays empty).

Step 3 - Nominalize: drop the noun. When the noun is obvious, delete it and let the 的-phrase stand alone as a noun meaning “the one(s) that …”:

• 红的 (hóng de) - the red one
• 我的 (wǒ de) - mine
• 我昨天买的 (wǒ zuótiān mǎi de) - the one I bought yesterday

This is also how Chinese coins casual occupation words - verb phrase + 的 = “the person who does it”: 卖菜的 (mài cài de, “greengrocer”), 开车的 (kāichē de, “driver”), 教书的 (jiāo shū de, “teacher”).

Forms & patterns

What the clause before 的 can be (the noun on the right is what it describes):

Nominalization - drop the head noun, keep 的:

Examples

• 我买的书很有意思。 (Wǒ mǎi de shū hěn yǒu yìsi.) - The book I bought is very interesting.
• 昨天来的人是我朋友。 (Zuótiān lái de rén shì wǒ péngyou.) - The person who came yesterday is my friend.
• 会说中文的学生不多。 (Huì shuō Zhōngwén de xuésheng bù duō.) - There aren’t many students who can speak Chinese.
• 红的太贵，我买蓝的。 (Hóng de tài guì, wǒ mǎi lán de.) - The red one is too expensive, so I’ll buy the blue one.
• 穿红衣服的女孩是我妹妹。 (Chuān hóng yīfu de nǚhái shì wǒ mèimei.) - The girl wearing red is my little sister.
• 教中文的老师很有名。 (Jiāo Zhōngwén de lǎoshī hěn yǒumíng.) - The teacher who teaches Chinese is very famous.
• 你说的都对。 (Nǐ shuō de dōu duì.) - Everything you said is right.
• 卖菜的是我邻居。 (Mài cài de shì wǒ línjū.) - The greengrocer is my neighbor.
• 他写的信很长。 (Tā xiě de xìn hěn cháng.) - The letter he wrote is very long.

Common mistakes

• 昨天来人很多。 -> 昨天来的人很多。 (Zuótiān lái de rén hěn duō.) - without 的, 昨天来 reads as a full clause (“came yesterday”); 的 is the glue that turns it into a describer of 人.
• 我买它的书 -> 我买的书 (wǒ mǎi de shū) - do not put a resumptive pronoun back in the gap; the slot after 买 stays empty because 书 already fills that role.
• 会说中文人 -> 会说中文的人 (huì shuō Zhōngwén de rén) - a multi-word / clausal modifier always keeps 的; you can only drop it for a single tight adjective (好人, 新书).
• 我要红。 -> 我要红的。 (Wǒ yào hóng de.) - “the red one” needs 的 to become a noun; bare 红 is only the adjective “red”.
• 他是卖菜。 -> 他是卖菜的。 (Tā shì mài cài de.) - an occupation needs 的; without it 卖菜 (“sell vegetables”) is a verb phrase and cannot be the predicate noun.

Tips

• Chinese is modifier-first: no matter how long the describing clause is, it all crams in front of 的, and the noun lands at the end. If English says “the noun that …”, flip it to “the [that …] noun” before you translate.
• Translating “who / which / that” or slotting a pronoun into the gap is the classic mistake - there is no relative pronoun and no gap-filler. Delete both.
• 的 + nothing = “the … one”. This is everyday shorthand for colors, sizes, and jobs: 大的 (dà de, “the big one”), 便宜的 (piányi de, “the cheap one”), 开车的 (kāichē de, “the driver”).
• A relative clause can sit before or after 这 / 那 + measure word: 我买的那本书 and 那本我买的书 both mean “that book I bought”. Clause-first is the safe, neutral order.

In short

Chinese joins two clauses with a matched pair of words - one opening each half: 如果……就 (rúguǒ……jiù, if … then), 因为……所以 (yīnwèi……suǒyǐ, because … so), 虽然……但是 (suīrán……dànshì, although … but). Where English drops one side (“if it rains, I won’t go”), Chinese usually keeps both. The trap is the second word - the 就 and the 所以/但是 learners forget.

The rule

Step 1 - Logical clauses come in fixed pairs. A conjunction opens clause 1, and a matching word opens clause 2. Unlike English, Chinese normally keeps both halves; drop the second word and the sentence sounds unfinished. Learn the three pairs as units, not as single words.

Step 2 - Conditional: 如果 / 要是……就. 如果 (rúguǒ) and the more colloquial 要是 (yàoshi) both mean “if”; the result clause is introduced by the adverb 就 (jiù).

如果 + condition，(subject) + 就 + result

如果明天下雨，我就不去。 (rúguǒ míngtiān xià yǔ, wǒ jiù bú qù) - If it rains tomorrow, I won’t go. Note where 就 sits: after the subject of the second clause, right before the verb. A second “if”: tag ……的话 (……de huà) onto the end of the condition - 明天下雨的话，我就不去 - alone or together with 如果/要是.

Step 3 - Cause and effect: 因为……所以. 因为 (yīnwèi, because) opens the reason; 所以 (suǒyǐ, so / therefore) opens the result. English keeps only one (“Because it rained, I didn’t go” / “It rained, so I didn’t go”); standard Chinese keeps both.

因为 + reason，所以 + result

因为下雨，所以我没去。 (yīnwèi xià yǔ, suǒyǐ wǒ méi qù) - Because it rained, I didn’t go. You may also front the result and let the reason trail: 我没去，因为下雨 - then 所以 is simply dropped.

Step 4 - Concession: 虽然……但是 / 可是. 虽然 (suīrán, although) opens the concession; 但是 (dànshì) or the slightly more colloquial 可是 (kěshì) - both “but” - opens the contrast. English bans “although … but”; Chinese requires the pair.

虽然 + fact，但是 / 可是 + contrast

虽然很贵，但是我买了。 (suīrán hěn guì, dànshì wǒ mǎi le) - Although it’s expensive, I bought it.

Placement, once and for all. The conjunctions 因为 / 虽然 / 所以 / 但是 / 可是 sit at the head of their clause (before the subject). 如果 / 要是 may go before or after the subject. But 就 is an adverb - it always stands after the subject and before the verb, never at the clause head.

Forms & patterns

The three pairs at a glance:

Where each word sits in its clause:

Examples

• 如果你有时间，就给我打电话。 (Rúguǒ nǐ yǒu shíjiān, jiù gěi wǒ dǎ diànhuà.) - If you have time, give me a call.
• 要是明天下雨，我们就不去公园。 (Yàoshi míngtiān xià yǔ, wǒmen jiù bú qù gōngyuán.) - If it rains tomorrow, we won’t go to the park.
• 你不喜欢的话，可以换一个。 (Nǐ bù xǐhuan de huà, kěyǐ huàn yí ge.) - If you don’t like it, you can swap it for another one.
• 因为我生病了，所以没去上班。 (Yīnwèi wǒ shēngbìng le, suǒyǐ méi qù shàngbān.) - Because I got sick, I didn’t go to work.
• 因为天气不好，所以航班取消了。 (Yīnwèi tiānqì bù hǎo, suǒyǐ hángbān qǔxiāo le.) - Because the weather was bad, the flight was cancelled.
• 我没去，因为我太忙了。 (Wǒ méi qù, yīnwèi wǒ tài máng le.) - I didn’t go, because I was too busy.
• 虽然他很累，但是还在工作。 (Suīrán tā hěn lèi, dànshì hái zài gōngzuò.) - Although he’s tired, he’s still working.
• 虽然这家餐厅很贵，可是菜很好吃。 (Suīrán zhè jiā cāntīng hěn guì, kěshì cài hěn hǎochī.) - Although this restaurant is expensive, the food is delicious.
• 如果你累了，就早点休息。 (Rúguǒ nǐ lèi le, jiù zǎodiǎn xiūxi.) - If you’re tired, rest a little earlier.
• 虽然我们赢了，但是大家都不高兴。 (Suīrán wǒmen yíng le, dànshì dàjiā dōu bù gāoxìng.) - Although we won, nobody was happy.

Common mistakes

• 如果明天有空，就我去看你。 -> 如果明天有空，我就去看你。 - 就 is an adverb, so it follows the subject; only the conjunctions may open the clause.
• 虽然他很努力，所以没成功。 -> 虽然他很努力，但是没成功。 - 虽然 pairs with 但是 / 可是 (contrast), never with 所以 (result).
• 因为堵车，但是我迟到了。 -> 因为堵车，所以我迟到了。 - a cause pairs with 所以 (so), not 但是 (but); match the pair to the logic.
• 的话你不去，我也不去。 -> 你不去的话，我也不去。 - ……的话 is a tag that clips onto the end of the condition clause, never the front.

Tips

• Chinese loves matched pairs where English drops one half. “Although … but” and “because … so” are wrong in English but standard in Chinese: 虽然……但是, 因为……所以. When in doubt, keep both.
• Two positions to keep apart: the conjunctions (如果 / 因为 / 虽然 / 所以 / 但是) sit at the head of their clause, but 就 is an adverb and hides after the subject. Memory hook: 就 is a 副词 (fùcí, adverb), so it clings to the verb, never the front.
• Register: 要是 (yàoshi) and ……的话 are conversational “if”; 如果 is neutral and safe in writing. 可是 (kěshì) is a shade more colloquial than 但是 (dànshì) - both are fine.
• Watch the 不 tone in these result clauses: 不 is bù, but before a 4th-tone verb it becomes bú - hence 就不去 is jiù bú qù, not bù qù.

In short

Chinese builds relative time back-to-front: the reference event comes first and the time word comes last, so 吃饭以后 (chī fàn yǐhòu) = “after eating,” literally “eat-meal, after.” Use 以前 (yǐqián, before), 以后 (yǐhòu, after) and …的时候 (de shíhou, when / while) for relative time; 先…再/然后 (xiān … zài / ránhòu) to line up steps “first … then”; and 一边…一边 (yìbiān … yìbiān) for two things done at once.

The rule

Step 1 - Relative time words are postposed - the clause comes first. English says “before eating,” “after class,” “when I left.” Chinese reverses this: the event is stated, then the time word closes it. Think of 以前 / 以后 / 的时候 as tags stuck onto the end of a mini-clause.

[ Clause ] + 以前 / 以后 / 的时候

吃饭以前 (chī fàn yǐqián, before eating), 下课以后 (xiàkè yǐhòu, after class), 走的时候 (zǒu de shíhou, when leaving). The whole time phrase then normally sits at the front of the sentence, before the main clause: 下课以后，我们去吃饭 (Xiàkè yǐhòu, wǒmen qù chī fàn, after class we’ll go eat).

Step 2 - 以前 vs 以后 = before vs after. They also take number-spans: 三年以前 (sān nián yǐqián, three years ago), 两天以后 (liǎng tiān yǐhòu, two days later). Standing alone at the front of a sentence (not after a clause), 以前 means “formerly / in the past”: 以前我住在北京 (Yǐqián wǒ zhù zài Běijīng, I used to live in Beijing).

Step 3 - …的时候 = “when / while.” This frames a simultaneous background - something else is true at that same moment: 我走的时候，他还在睡觉 (Wǒ zǒu de shíhou, tā hái zài shuìjiào, when I left, he was still asleep). A verb-clause needs the linker 的 before 时候; never drop it.

Step 4 - Sequence: 先…再/然后 (“first … then”). For steps in order, mark the first with 先 (xiān) and the next with 再 (zài) or the connector 然后 (ránhòu). 先 and 再 are pre-verbal adverbs (after the subject, before the verb); 然后 is a conjunction that can open a fresh clause with its own subject:

Subject + 先 + V₁，(Subject) + 再 / 然后 + V₂

我们先吃饭，再看电影 (Wǒmen xiān chī fàn, zài kàn diànyǐng, we’ll eat first, then see a film). Here 再 means “the next step,” not “again” - that is a different sense of the same character (see Scope and time adverbs (就/才/再/又/还)).

Step 5 - Simultaneity: 一边…一边 (two actions at once). One subject doing two ongoing things at the same time:

Subject + 一边 + V₁ + 一边 + V₂

他一边吃饭，一边看电视 (Tā yìbiān chī fàn, yìbiān kàn diànshì, he eats while watching TV). Both actions belong to the same person. In casual speech it shortens to 边…边: 边走边说 (biān zǒu biān shuō, talk while walking).

Forms & patterns

The relative-time frame - clause first, tag last:

Sequence and simultaneity connectors:

Register variants of “before / after”:

Examples

• 下课以后，我们一起去吃饭。 (Xiàkè yǐhòu, wǒmen yìqǐ qù chī fàn.) - After class, we’ll go eat together.
• 来中国以前，我不会说中文。 (Lái Zhōngguó yǐqián, wǒ bú huì shuō Zhōngwén.) - Before coming to China, I couldn’t speak Chinese.
• 以前我不喜欢咖啡，现在很喜欢。 (Yǐqián wǒ bù xǐhuan kāfēi, xiànzài hěn xǐhuan.) - I used to dislike coffee; now I like it a lot.
• 我小的时候，住在上海。 (Wǒ xiǎo de shíhou, zhù zài Shànghǎi.) - When I was little, I lived in Shanghai.
• 你走的时候，请关灯。 (Nǐ zǒu de shíhou, qǐng guān dēng.) - When you leave, please turn off the light.
• 我们先吃饭，再看电影。 (Wǒmen xiān chī fàn, zài kàn diànyǐng.) - Let’s eat first, then watch a movie.
• 我先洗手，然后做饭。 (Wǒ xiān xǐ shǒu, ránhòu zuò fàn.) - I’ll wash my hands first, and then cook.
• 他一边吃饭，一边看电视。 (Tā yìbiān chī fàn, yìbiān kàn diànshì.) - He eats while watching TV.
• 她喜欢一边走路，一边听音乐。 (Tā xǐhuan yìbiān zǒulù, yìbiān tīng yīnyuè.) - She likes to listen to music while walking.

Common mistakes

• 以前吃饭，我洗手。 -> 吃饭以前，我洗手。 (Chī fàn yǐqián, wǒ xǐ shǒu.) - The reference event comes before 以前/以后; the tag never leads its clause the way English “before” does. (Sentence-initial 以前 alone means “formerly,” a different meaning.)
• 我们吃饭先。 -> 我们先吃饭。 (Wǒmen xiān chī fàn.) - 先 is a pre-verbal adverb: after the subject, before the verb - never at the end like English “first.”
• 我们先吃饭，又看电影。 -> 我们先吃饭，再看电影。 (Wǒmen xiān chī fàn, zài kàn diànyǐng.) - In a planned sequence the “next” word is 再; 又 is “again, already happened” (lesson 23) and cannot open a future step.
• 他一边唱歌，她一边跳舞。 -> 他一边唱歌，一边跳舞。 (Tā yìbiān chàng gē, yìbiān tiào wǔ.) - 一边…一边 links two actions of the same subject; two different people cannot share it.
• 吃饭时候看电视 -> 吃饭的时候看电视 (chī fàn de shíhou kàn diànshì) - a verb-clause plus 时候 needs the linker 的; drop it and it is ungrammatical.

Tips

• Read the time words right-to-left. 以前/以后/的时候 are postpositions: state the event, then tag on “before / after / when.” 下课 + 以后 = “class-over, then-after.” This mirror image of English is the single thing to drill.
• 先 pairs with 再 or 然后, never 又. In a sequence, 再 = the next step (not “one more time”); if a new subject starts the second step, reach for the conjunction 然后 (or 然后再) instead of the bare adverb.
• 一边…一边 = one person, both at once. For two different people acting at the same time, don’t stretch it - use two clauses. In speech it clips to 边…边 (边走边说).
• Tone note on 一. In 一边 the 一 is yì (it precedes the 1st-tone 边), though alone it is yī; likewise 一起 is yìqǐ. Say the compound, not the citation tone.

In short

An existential sentence puts a place first, then a verb, then a brand-new, indefinite thing: 墙上挂着一幅画 (qiáng shàng guà zhe yī fú huà, there’s a painting hanging on the wall). It is how Chinese says “there is / appears / vanishes X at a place.” The verb carries 着 for a static state or 了 for something appearing or leaving, and the final noun is always new information - 一 + measure word, never 这/那.

The rule

An existential sentence (存现句) reverses ordinary word order to present something. Instead of “the thing + is somewhere,” you say “the place + shows + a thing.” The whole schema is:

Place + Verb + 着 / 了 + (Number + Measure) indefinite Noun

Step 1 - Lead with the place, bare. The location itself is the subject, so it needs no 在 in front of it: 门口 (ménkǒu, the doorway), 桌子上 (zhuōzi shàng, on the table), 前面 (qiánmiàn, up ahead). Give an object noun a localizer (上, 里, 下) to make it a place. (A time word - 昨天, yesterday - can lead the same way, but the core case is a place.)

Step 2 - Mark the verb for its job. There are three flavours:

• Existence (存在) - something simply sits there in some posture or arrangement. Use Verb + 着: 床上躺着一个孩子 (chuáng shàng tǎng zhe yī ge háizi, a child is lying on the bed). Typical verbs are placement/posture verbs: 放 (fàng, be placed), 挂 (guà, hang), 站 (zhàn, stand), 坐 (zuò, sit), 停 (tíng, be parked), 写 (xiě, be written).
• Appearance (出现) - something comes into the scene. Use Verb + 了, often with a directional 来/去: 前面来了一个人 (qiánmiàn lái le yī ge rén, someone came up ahead).
• Disappearance (消失) - something leaves the scene. Also Verb + 了: 家里死了一只猫 (jiā lǐ sǐ le yī zhī māo, a cat died at home).

Step 3 - End with a NEW, indefinite noun. This is the point of the whole construction: it introduces something the listener does not yet know. So the final noun takes 一 + measure word (or 几, 很多, a bare number) - and never 这/那 or a name. If the thing is already known, you must not use an existential sentence; flip to Thing + Verb + 在 + Place instead (那幅画挂在墙上, nà fú huà guà zài qiáng shàng, that painting hangs on the wall).

Existential sentences are presentational and almost always affirmative. To say something is not there, use plain 没有 existence (墙上没有画), covered in 有 and 在.

Forms & patterns

The three types of 存现句:

Existential order vs ordinary location order - the same scene, opposite jobs:

Common existence verbs (posture / placement) that take 着:

(In 一幅画, 一辆车 etc. the number 一 is written yī in citation but pronounced yì before a 1st/2nd/3rd-tone measure and yí before a 4th-tone one - see [Tone sandhi (reading & pronunciation guide)XLINK.)

Examples

• 墙上挂着一幅画。 (Qiáng shàng guà zhe yī fú huà.) - There’s a painting hanging on the wall.
• 桌子上放着一台电脑。 (Zhuōzi shàng fàng zhe yī tái diànnǎo.) - There’s a computer sitting on the table.
• 床上躺着一个孩子。 (Chuáng shàng tǎng zhe yī ge háizi.) - A child is lying on the bed.
• 教室里坐着很多学生。 (Jiàoshì lǐ zuò zhe hěn duō xuésheng.) - There are a lot of students sitting in the classroom.
• 门口停着一辆汽车。 (Ménkǒu tíng zhe yī liàng qìchē.) - A car is parked at the doorway.
• 前面来了一个人。 (Qiánmiàn lái le yī ge rén.) - Someone came up ahead.
• 我们班转来了一个新同学。 (Wǒmen bān zhuǎn lái le yī ge xīn tóngxué.) - A new classmate transferred into our class.
• 家里死了一只猫。 (Jiā lǐ sǐ le yī zhī māo.) - A cat died at home.

Common mistakes

• 墙上挂着这幅画。 -> 墙上挂着一幅画。 (Qiáng shàng guà zhe yī fú huà.) - The presented noun must be indefinite (一 + measure); a 这/那 noun is already known, so use 那幅画挂在墙上 instead.
• 前面来一个人。 -> 前面来了一个人。 (Qiánmiàn lái le yī ge rén.) - Appearance and disappearance verbs need 了 to mark the thing entering or leaving the scene.
• 在门口停着一辆车。 -> 门口停着一辆车。 (Ménkǒu tíng zhe yī liàng chē.) - The place is the subject itself; do not put 在 in front of it in an existential sentence.
• 门口站着他。 -> 他站在门口。 (Tā zhàn zài ménkǒu.) - A definite noun (他, 那个人) cannot be the introduced item; flip to Thing + V + 在 + Place.
• 桌子上有放着一本书。 -> 桌子上放着一本书。 (Zhuōzi shàng fàng zhe yī běn shū.) - Do not stack 有 onto the existential verb; 放着 already does the “there is” job.

Tips

• One clean split: 着 = a still photo of something resting in place (存在); 了 = the moment something enters or leaves the frame (出现 / 消失). Pick the marker that matches whether the scene is frozen or changing.
• The end-noun is always new - that is the whole reason 存现句 exists. If you catch yourself wanting to end with 他, 我的书, or 那辆车, the thing is already known: switch to Thing + 在 + Place and drop the existential order.
• These sentences are the workhorse of description and narration. Openers like 屋里坐着几个人 (wū lǐ zuò zhe jǐ ge rén, a few people were sitting in the room) set a scene by panning from the place to what fills it - very common at the start of a story or a paragraph.
• Do not confuse this with plain 有 existence. 桌子上有一本书 just states a book exists there; 桌子上放着一本书 adds how it sits (lying flat, placed). Existential verbs paint the posture; 有 only reports presence.

In short

The 把 (bǎ) construction pulls a definite object in front of the verb - Subject + 把 + Object + Verb + result - to say what is DONE to it: 把门关上 (bǎ mén guān shàng) “close the door,” 把书放在桌子上 (bǎ shū fàng zài zhuōzi shang) “put the book on the table.” The one iron rule: the verb can never stand bare. It must carry a complement, a 了, or another element that shows how the object was disposed of.

The rule

Normal Chinese order is Subject-Verb-Object (see Basic word order (SVO)). The 把 construction rearranges it: it takes a specific, already-known object, marks it with 把 (bǎ, originally the verb “to take/hold”), and parks it before the verb - so the whole back half of the sentence is free to describe what became of that object. That is why grammars call it the “disposal” form: X is taken, and then something is done to it.

Step 1 - Use the skeleton.

Subject + 把 + Object + Verb + (result element)

我把作业写完了。 (Wǒ bǎ zuòyè xiě wán le.) = “I finished the homework.” The object 作业 (zuòyè, homework) jumps ahead of the verb 写 (xiě, write); 完了 (wán le, finish + 了) tells the outcome.

Step 2 - The object must be definite. 把 handles a specific thing both speaker and listener can identify - use 这/那 (zhè/nà, this/that), a possessive, or a bare known noun, never 一 (yī, “a/an”). You cannot 把 a brand-new indefinite thing into existence.

Step 3 - Never leave the verb bare - this is the heart of the pattern. A lone verb after 把 is ungrammatical (我把门关 is wrong). The verb must be followed by something that reports the disposal: a resultative or directional complement, a 在/到 + place phrase, 给 + recipient, 成 + new form, the particle 了, or a reduplication. See the table below.

Step 4 - Negation, modals and adverbs go BEFORE 把. Put 没 (méi), 别 (bié, “don’t”), 不 (bù), or a modal like 要 (yào, must) in front of 把, never after it: 我没把手机带来。 (Wǒ méi bǎ shǒujī dài lái.) = “I didn’t bring my phone.”

Step 5 - Only action verbs qualify. 把 needs a verb that actually affects or handles its object. State, perception and cognition verbs - 是 (shì), 有 (yǒu), 喜欢 (xǐhuan, like), 知道 (zhīdào, know), 看见 (kàn jiàn, see) - dispose of nothing and cannot take 把.

Forms & patterns

What fills the post-verb slot - the verb can lean on any of these:

Where negation, commands and modals sit - all in front of 把:

Examples

• 请把书放在桌子上。 (Qǐng bǎ shū fàng zài zhuōzi shang.) - Please put the book on the table.
• 我把作业写完了。 (Wǒ bǎ zuòyè xiě wán le.) - I’ve finished the homework.
• 他把杯子打破了。 (Tā bǎ bēizi dǎ pò le.) - He broke the cup.
• 请把窗户打开。 (Qǐng bǎ chuānghu dǎ kāi.) - Please open the window.
• 你把这些菜吃完。 (Nǐ bǎ zhèxiē cài chī wán.) - Finish these dishes.
• 他把那本书还给我了。 (Tā bǎ nà běn shū huán gěi wǒ le.) - He returned that book to me.
• 我把钱包忘在家里了。 (Wǒ bǎ qiánbāo wàng zài jiā li le.) - I left my wallet at home.
• 别把垃圾扔在地上。 (Bié bǎ lājī rēng zài dì shang.) - Don’t throw the trash on the ground.
• 我没把手机带来。 (Wǒ méi bǎ shǒujī dài lái.) - I didn’t bring my phone.

Common mistakes

• 我把作业写。 -> 我把作业写完了。 (Wǒ bǎ zuòyè xiě wán le.) - a 把 verb can never stand alone; it must carry a complement, 了, or other result element.
• 我把一本书看完了。 -> 我把那本书看完了。 (Wǒ bǎ nà běn shū kàn wán le.) - the object of 把 must be definite; use 这/那, not the indefinite 一 “a.”
• 我把作业没写完。 -> 我没把作业写完。 (Wǒ méi bǎ zuòyè xiě wán.) - 没/不/别 come before 把, not before the verb.
• 我把他喜欢。 -> 我喜欢他。 (Wǒ xǐhuan tā.) - 把 needs a verb that acts on the object; state and feeling verbs (喜欢, 是, 有, 知道) cannot take 把.

Tips

• Read 把 as “take X and do something to it.” It grabs the object, sets it in front of the verb, and clears the back of the sentence for the outcome - which is why the result element is obligatory.
• The quick self-check: after a 把 verb there is ALWAYS something extra (一个复杂结果 - a complement, 在 + place, 给 + person, 成, 了, or a reduplication). If your verb is naked, the sentence is broken.
• 把 is the natural voice for commands about handling things: 把门关上！ (Bǎ mén guān shàng!) “Close the door!” 把手机拿出来！ (Bǎ shǒujī ná chū lái!) “Take out your phone!”
• Think of 把 as the mirror of 被 (bèi): 把 fronts the doer’s object to stress what they did to it; 被 fronts the receiver to stress what happened to them. Same event, opposite spotlight - see 被 passive construction.

In short

Chinese marks the passive with 被 (bèi): put the thing acted upon first, then 被 (plus an optional doer), then a verb that carries extra weight - 杯子被他打破了 (bēizi bèi tā dǎ pò le, the cup was broken by him). In casual speech 被 often becomes 叫 (jiào) or 让 (ràng), but those must name the doer. Chinese leans on the passive far less than English - it mostly reports things that went wrong.

The rule

A passive sentence turns the spotlight onto the patient - the person or thing that suffers the action - and lets you name the agent (the doer) after a little marker. The active mirror image, where the doer stays in front and disposes of the object, is the 把 disposal construction; read the two together.

Step 1 - Put the patient first. The affected noun becomes the subject/topic at the very front:

Patient + 被 + (Agent) + Verb + extra element

杯子被他打破了 (bēizi bèi tā dǎ pò le) = cup (patient) + 被 + he (agent) + break + 了.

Step 2 - Name the agent, or drop it - but only with 被. After 被 you may state the doer or leave it out when it is unknown or obvious: 我的自行车被偷了 (wǒ de zìxíngchē bèi tōu le, my bike was stolen) has no agent at all. This drop-the-doer freedom belongs to 被 alone.

Step 3 - The verb can never stand bare. A passive needs the action to land, so the verb must carry something after it - the aspect particle 了, a resultative or directional complement, or an object. 他被老师批评 is incomplete; 他被老师批评了 (tā bèi lǎoshī pīpíng le, he was criticized by the teacher) is right. Complements do the same job: 打破 (dǎ pò, break), 吃光 (chī guāng, eat up), 抓住 (zhuā zhù, catch).

Step 4 - Negation and adverbs go in front of 被. Words like 没(有) (méi(yǒu)), 不 (bù), 已经 (yǐjīng, already) and 都 (dōu) sit before the marker, never after the agent: 作业还没被检查 (zuòyè hái méi bèi jiǎnchá, the homework hasn’t been checked yet). Passives usually report completed events, so the negation is normally 没, not 不; 不 appears only with a following modal, e.g. 他不会被发现 (tā bú huì bèi fāxiàn, he won’t be found out) - here 不 shifts to bú before the 4th-tone 会.

Step 5 - Colloquial swaps: 叫 / 让 / 给. In speech, 叫 (jiào) and 让 (ràng) replace 被, and 给 (gěi) can stand in or reinforce it. All three feel more spoken and slightly more adversative. Their catch: they must name a doer - 钱包叫小偷偷走了 (qiánbāo jiào xiǎotōu tōu zǒu le), never a bare 钱包叫偷走了. 给 also tucks in right before the verb for extra colloquial colour: 杯子被他给打破了.

Note the flavour: the 被-passive traditionally reports something unfortunate (loss, damage, being scolded or caught). Modern written Chinese has relaxed this, but when nothing bad happened, a plain active or topic-comment sentence is usually more natural than a passive.

Forms & patterns

The four markers - what they signal and whether the doer can be dropped:

The slots, front to back:

Examples

• 杯子被他打破了。 (Bēizi bèi tā dǎ pò le.) - The cup was broken by him.
• 我的自行车被偷了。 (Wǒ de zìxíngchē bèi tōu le.) - My bike was stolen.
• 他被老师批评了。 (Tā bèi lǎoshī pīpíng le.) - He was criticized by the teacher.
• 蛋糕被弟弟吃光了。 (Dàngāo bèi dìdi chī guāng le.) - The cake was eaten up by little brother.
• 窗户让风吹开了。 (Chuānghu ràng fēng chuī kāi le.) - The window was blown open by the wind.
• 钱包叫小偷偷走了。 (Qiánbāo jiào xiǎotōu tōu zǒu le.) - The wallet was stolen by a thief.
• 小狗给雨淋湿了。 (Xiǎogǒu gěi yǔ lín shī le.) - The puppy got soaked by the rain.
• 作业还没被老师检查。 (Zuòyè hái méi bèi lǎoshī jiǎnchá.) - The homework hasn’t been checked by the teacher yet.
• 那个坏人终于被警察抓住了。 (Nàge huàirén zhōngyú bèi jǐngchá zhuā zhù le.) - The bad guy was finally caught by the police.

Common mistakes

• 他被老师批评。 -> 他被老师批评了。 (Tā bèi lǎoshī pīpíng le.) - The verb can’t end the sentence bare; add 了, a complement, or an object so the action lands.
• 他被杯子打破了。 (meaning “the cup broke”) -> 杯子被他打破了。 (Bēizi bèi tā dǎ pò le.) - The patient (what suffers) goes before 被, the agent (doer) after it - reversing them reverses the meaning.
• 他被老师没批评。 -> 他没被老师批评。 (Tā méi bèi lǎoshī pīpíng.) - 没/不 and adverbs sit in front of 被, never after the agent.
• 书叫拿走了。 -> 书被拿走了。 (Shū bèi ná zǒu le.) - Only 被 may drop the doer; 叫/让 need a named agent (or a placeholder 人, e.g. 叫人拿走了).

Tips

• Read a 被-sentence as “X got Verb-ed (by Y).” The order is fixed and English-like: sufferer - 被 - doer - action. That is the opposite of the 把 disposal construction, where the doer leads and disposes of the object.
• 被 is the safe, all-purpose choice - neutral in speech and the only marker you will see in writing. Save 叫/让/给 for casual conversation, and remember they always spell out the doer.
• Don’t calque every English passive. “The problem was solved” is far more naturally 问题解决了 (wèntí jiějué le, topic-comment) than a 被 sentence. Reach for 被 mainly when something unwelcome happened to the subject.
• The verb-can’t-be-bare rule is the same instinct as the 把 disposal construction and resultative complements: Chinese wants the outcome of the action stated, not just the action.

In short

A pivotal sentence chains two verbs around one shared noun: that noun is the object of verb 1 and the subject of verb 2 at the same time. The everyday case is causation - “make / have / let someone do something” - built with 让 (ràng), 叫 (jiào), 使 (shǐ) or 令 (lìng): 老师让我们写作业 (lǎoshī ràng wǒmen xiě zuòyè, the teacher makes us do homework). Order is fixed: Subject + 让/叫/使/令 + person + verb 2.

The rule

Chinese calls the shared noun a 兼语 (jiānyǔ, a “double-duty” element): it does two jobs at once. In 老师让我们写作业, the word 我们 (wǒmen, us) is the object of 让 (what the teacher acts on) and the subject of 写 (who does the writing). One noun, two roles - that is the whole trick.

The schematic pattern is:

Subject + 让/叫/使/令 + Pivot (person) + Verb 2 (+ rest)

Step 1 - pick the causative verb. All four mean “cause / make,” but they are not interchangeable:

• 让 (ràng) - the default. Neutral, extremely common; covers “let / allow” and “make / have”: 让我看看 (ràng wǒ kànkan, let me take a look).
• 叫 (jiào) - colloquial, leans toward giving an order: 老板叫他来 (lǎobǎn jiào tā lái, the boss told him to come).
• 使 (shǐ) - formal / written. It causes a change of state or a feeling, rarely a concrete action, and its subject is often a thing or an event: 这件事使我很难过 (zhè jiàn shì shǐ wǒ hěn nánguò, this matter made me very sad).
• 令 (lìng) - literary, almost always in the frame 令人 + feeling: 令人失望 (lìng rén shīwàng, disappointing), 令人感动 (lìng rén gǎndòng, moving).

Step 2 - keep the pivot in the middle. The person always sits between the two verbs. Do not drop it (even when English would) and do not move it after verb 2: it is both the object of verb 1 and the subject of verb 2, so it has to stand where the two clauses join.

Step 3 - negate verb 1, not verb 2. Put 不 (bù) or 没 (méi) before the causative verb: 妈妈不让我出去 (māma bú ràng wǒ chūqù, Mom won’t let me go out). Note the tone sandhi - 不 is bù but becomes bú before a 4th-tone syllable like 让 (ràng). Watch the meaning: 不让… = “not allow,” while 让…不… = “allow someone not to” - two different sentences.

Step 4 - aspect goes on verb 2. The real event is verb 2, so 了 (le), 过 (guo) and complements attach there, never to the causative: 老师让我们写完了作业 (lǎoshī ràng wǒmen xiěwán le zuòyè, the teacher had us finish the homework) - never 让了.

Two neighbours look similar but are different tools. 让 and 叫 can also introduce the agent of a passive (被-type) sentence - that is owned by 被 passive construction. And a two-verb string that shares its subject (not an object-turned-subject), like 我去买菜, is a serial-verb construction, not a pivot - see Serial-verb construction and 来/去.

Forms & patterns

The four causatives at a glance: