In short

Zijn (“to be”) and hebben (“to have”) are the two most important Dutch verbs. They are irregular, so learn their forms by heart: use zijn for who/what/how someone is, and hebben for what someone has.

The rule

Both verbs are irregular - you cannot build them from the rules in lesson 1, you simply memorise them.

• zijn = identity and state: Ik ben Anna. Ik ben moe. (“I am Anna. I am tired.”)
• hebben = possession: Ik heb een fiets. (“I have a bike.”)

Watch the inversion rule (verb before the subject in questions): with jij/je, the final -t drops.

• Statement: Jij bent ziek. / Je hebt tijd.
• Question: Ben jij ziek? / Heb je tijd?

With u the form never loses its -t: u bent, bent u?. For hebben, both u hebt and u heeft are correct and equally common.

Dutch often uses hebben where English uses “to be”, in a set of fixed phrases:

Finally: zijn and hebben are the two auxiliary verbs of the present perfect (the perfect tense): Ik heb gewerkt, Ik ben geweest. You will learn which verb to pick in lesson 22.

Forms & patterns

zijn (to be):

hebben (to have):

Examples

Common mistakes

• jij bent moe? -> ben jij moe? - in a question the jij-form loses its -t (inversion).
• ik ben honger -> ik heb honger - hunger/thirst/being right use hebben, not zijn.
• hij heb / hij hebt -> hij heeft - third person singular of hebben is always heeft.
• jij bint / ik bin -> jij bent / ik ben - common spelling slip; learn the exact vowels.
• u bint / u ben -> u bent - the polite u keeps the -t even after the verb (bent u?).

Tips

• Memory hook: only the singular zijn-forms change shape (ben / bent / is); every plural is just zijn. Same for hebben: every plural is hebben.
• u may take hebt or heeft - both are fine, so you can’t go wrong there.
• Whenever English says “I am hungry/thirsty/right”, reach for hebben in Dutch.
• These two verbs power the present perfect (lesson 22), so the time you spend now pays off twice.

In short

Dutch has two definite articles, de and het (“the”), depending on the noun’s gender, and one indefinite article een (“a/an”). Every plural takes de, and een has no plural (its negative is geen).

The rule

Every Dutch noun has a gender that decides its definite article:

• de-words (common gender) - about two-thirds of all nouns: de man, de vrouw, de tafel.
• het-words (neuter) - the remaining third: het huis, het kind, het boek.

The indefinite article een (“a/an”) is the same for both genders: een man, een huis. It is unstressed and pronounced like un (the number “one” is the stressed één).

Three rules that are always true:

1. Plural definite is ALWAYS de - never het: de mannen, de huizen, de kinderen.
2. een has no plural. A plural indefinite simply drops the article: een boek -> boeken (“books”).
3. The negative of een (and of a no-article plural) is geen - see Negation: niet & geen: Ik heb een auto -> Ik heb geen auto.

The catch: gender is mostly not predictable, so you must learn each noun together with its article (learn het huis, not just huis). The patterns below are helpful guesses, not guarantees.

Forms & patterns

Rules of thumb for het-words (fairly reliable):

Rules of thumb for de-words:

Examples

Common mistakes

• het man -> de man - people are almost always de-words.
• de huis -> het huis - huis is neuter; learn it as het huis.
• het kinderen -> de kinderen - every plural is de, never het.
• de huisje -> het huisje - all diminutives (-je) are het, regardless of the base word.
• een huizen -> huizen / geen huizen - een has no plural; drop it or use geen.

Tips

• When you truly cannot guess, pick de: about two-thirds of nouns are de-words, so you’ll be right more often.
• Memory hook: every -je is het (het kopje, het broodje), and every plural is de.
• The article matters later too: it controls deze/die vs dit/dat and the adjective ending, so learning de/het now pays off in adjective inflection.
• Build vocabulary as pairs - flashcards with het huis, de tafel - never the bare noun.

In short

Most Dutch nouns form the plural with -en; a smaller group uses -s (especially after -el/-em/-en/-er, vowels and diminutives). After a long single vowel you write -‘s (auto’s), a few nouns take -eren (kinderen), and some are irregular (steden).

The rule

The plural does not depend on gender: both de-words and het-words follow the same endings. Pick the ending by how the singular sounds and is spelled.

1. Default: add -en. Watch the spelling, because Dutch keeps vowel length:

• Short vowel in a closed syllable -> double the consonant: man -> mannen, bus -> bussen.
• Long vowel written double in a closed syllable -> drop one vowel: boom -> bomen, uur -> uren.
• Final -s between vowels becomes -z: huis -> huizen, glas -> glazen.
• Final -f between vowels becomes -v: brief -> brieven, wolf -> wolven.
• No change needed: boek -> boeken, dag -> dagen.

2. Add -s when the singular ends in:

• unstressed -el, -em, -en, -er: tafel -> tafels, bezem -> bezems, deken -> dekens, moeder -> moeders;
• a diminutive -je: meisje -> meisjes, huisje -> huisjes;
• many loanwords, often from English/French: film -> films, computer -> computers, garage -> garages.

3. Add -‘s (apostrophe + s) after a long single vowel (a, o, u, i) and after y, to keep the vowel long: auto -> auto’s, foto -> foto’s, taxi -> taxi’s, menu -> menu’s, baby -> baby’s. (Words in -e just take -s: café -> cafés.)

4. Add -eren with a small, fixed group, often referring to “young/whole” things: kind -> kinderen, ei -> eieren, blad -> bladeren, lied -> liederen.

5. Irregulars change the vowel or are borrowed: stad -> steden, schip -> schepen, lid -> leden; koe -> koeien; museum -> musea.

Forms & patterns

Examples

Common mistakes

• mans -> mannen - short vowel needs a doubled consonant before -en, not -s.
• autos -> auto’s - after a long single vowel you must write an apostrophe + s.
• foto’en / fotos -> foto’s - vowel-final loanwords don’t take -en, and need the apostrophe.
• huisen -> huizen - final -s between vowels turns into -z.
• kinders / kinds -> kinderen - this is one of the fixed -eren words.

Tips

• Decide by sound first: if the noun ends in an unstressed -el/-em/-en/-er or in a diminutive -je, it almost always takes -s.
• “Apostrophe only after a, o, u, i”: auto’s, foto’s, taxi’s, menu’s - never after a consonant (films, not film’s).
• Spelling check for -en: keep the vowel length. Short vowel -> double the consonant (man->mannen); long double vowel -> drop one (boom->bomen).
• The -eren group is small - memorise the frequent ones: kind, ei, blad, lied.

In short

Subject pronouns (ik, jij, hij, wij…) are the words that do the verb’s action. Several have a stressed and an unstressed form (jij/je, zij/ze, wij/we); the unstressed one is the everyday default. Use u to be polite, and choose hij/het for things based on whether the noun is a de-word or a het-word.

The rule

Every Dutch sentence needs a subject. The subject pronoun comes before the verb in a plain statement and agrees with it (see lessons 1-3).

Three persons have two forms:

• Stressed forms (jij, zij, wij) carry emphasis or contrast: IK betaal, niet JIJ.
• Unstressed forms (je, ze, we) are the normal, neutral choice and are what you say most of the time. They are pronounced weakly (the vowel becomes a soft “uh”).

u is the polite/formal “you” for people you don’t know well or want to show respect (a stranger, a customer, an older person, your boss). It works for one person or several, and always takes a singular verb: u bent, u hebt/heeft.

For things, match the article you learned in lesson 3:

• a de-word -> refer back with hij
• a het-word -> refer back with het

For people, hij = male, zij/ze = female.

Forms & patterns

Note: jullie, u and ik have no separate weak/strong pair. zij and ze mean both “she” and “they” - the verb tells you which:

Quick agreement reminder (full details in Present tense):

Examples

Common mistakes

• De auto? Het is rood. -> De auto? Hij is rood. - a de-word is referred to with hij, not het.
• U zijn welkom. -> U bent welkom. - u always takes the singular verb.
• Spreek goed Nederlands. -> Je spreekt goed Nederlands. - Dutch can’t drop the subject; always include the pronoun.
• Ze is mijn ouders. -> Ze zijn mijn ouders. - “ze” here is plural (“they”), so the verb must be plural too.
• Jij betaalt? Nee, JE betaalt! -> Nee, JIJ betaalt! - for emphasis/contrast use the stressed form (jij/zij/wij), not the weak one.

Tips

• Default to the weak forms je, ze, we in normal speech and writing. Only switch to jij, zij, wij when you want emphasis or contrast.
• Choosing jij vs u: friends, family, children, peers -> jij/je; strangers, officials, customers, showing respect -> u.
• For an object, first ask “de or het?” Then the pronoun follows automatically: de -> hij, het -> het.
• In inversion (verb first), the -t drops only with je: jij werkt -> werk je? More on this in Main-clause word order.

In short

In a Dutch main clause the finite (conjugated) verb is always the second element (the “V2 rule”). If something other than the subject comes first, the subject jumps to right after the verb (inversion). Any extra verbs (infinitives, participles) go to the end.

The rule

The whole system rests on one anchor: the finite verb sits in position 2. “Position” means one chunk of meaning, not one word - “Mijn kleine broer” is a single first element.

1. Plain SVO - start with the subject, verb second:

Ik drink koffie. (I drink coffee.)

2. Inversion - start with something else (time, place, object…). That fronted part takes slot 1, the verb stays in slot 2, so the subject moves behind the verb:

Vandaag drink ik koffie. (Today I drink coffee.) Nu ga ik naar huis. (Now I’m going home.)

3. Extra verbs go to the end - only the finite verb is in slot 2; an infinitive or past participle is pushed to the back of the clause (this is the “verb bracket”):

Ik wil koffie drinken. (I want to drink coffee.) Ik heb koffie gedronken. (I have drunk coffee.)

Forms & patterns

Sub-pattern - adverbial order is Time - Manner - Place (TMP). When the subject stays first, the adverbials line up in this order:

Ik ga morgen met de trein naar Utrecht. (Tomorrow I’m going to Utrecht by train.)

Examples

Common mistakes

• Vandaag ik drink koffie -> Vandaag drink ik koffie - after a fronted element the verb must stay in slot 2, so the subject goes behind it.
• Morgen ik ga naar huis -> Morgen ga ik naar huis - same inversion rule; don’t keep subject-then-verb.
• Ik wil drinken koffie -> Ik wil koffie drinken - the infinitive belongs at the very end, not next to the modal.
• Ik heb gedronken koffie -> Ik heb koffie gedronken - the past participle also goes to the end.
• Ik ga naar Utrecht met de trein morgen -> Ik ga morgen met de trein naar Utrecht - keep the Time-Manner-Place order.

Tips

• Memory hook: “Verb second, no exceptions.” Count the first chunk as one slot - even a long phrase like In de zomer fills only slot 1.
• A quick self-test: if you front a word and the verb is now in slot 3, you forgot to swap the subject. Fix it by flipping subject and verb.
• Picture a bracket / tang: finite verb up front (slot 2), all other verbs at the back. Everything else sits inside.
• For adverbs, recite TMP = Time, Manner, Place (“when, how, where”).

In short

Dutch has two main negators. Use geen to negate an indefinite or article-less noun (Ik heb geen geld); use niet for everything else - verbs, adjectives, definite nouns and prepositional phrases. niet stands at the end of the clause, but jumps in front of adjectives, prepositional phrases and any second verb part.

The rule

Pick the negator from the thing you negate:

• geen replaces een + noun, or a noun used without any article (uncountable / plural). It means “no / not a / not any”.
  • Ik heb een auto. -> Ik heb geen auto.
  • Ik heb geld. -> Ik heb geen geld.
  • Ik koop appels. -> Ik koop geen appels.
• niet negates verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, and nouns with a definite article (de/het), a possessive, or a name - because geen cannot combine with those.
  • Ik werk. -> Ik werk niet.
  • Ik ken de man. -> Ik ken de man niet.

Where does niet go? Start at the end of the clause and move niet leftward only enough to stand before the element it must precede:

Forms & patterns

geen vs niet at a glance

Negative words & combinations

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik heb niet geld -> Ik heb geen geld - an indefinite/article-less noun takes geen, not niet.
• Ik niet werk -> Ik werk niet - the finite verb stays in slot 2 (V2); niet never goes before it.
• Ik heb gezien hem niet -> Ik heb hem niet gezien - niet comes before the past participle, and the participle stays at the end.
• De soep is warm niet -> De soep is niet warm - put niet before a predicate adjective.
• Ik ga naar huis niet -> Ik ga niet naar huis - niet goes before a prepositional phrase.
• Ik heb geen geld niet -> Ik heb geen geld - no double negative; one negator is enough.

Tips

• Quick test: is it an indefinite noun (it had een or no article)? Use geen. Everything else -> niet.
• Memory hook: geen ≈ niet + een. If you could say een …, negate with geen.
• Default position of niet is “as far right as possible”, but it hops in front of adjectives, prepositional phrases, separable particles and non-finite verbs (infinitive/participle).
• Pair them up: nog niet = not yet, niet meer = not anymore, geen … meer = none left.

In short

Cardinal numbers tell how many. Dutch puts the unit before the ten (eenentwintig = “one-and-twenty”), writes numbers under 1000 as one word, and uses a comma for decimals. They power telling time, dates, prices, age and phone numbers.

The rule

Learn 0-20 by heart, then the tens. From 21 up, build numbers as unit + en + ten: eenentwintig, vijfenveertig, negenennegentig. Add a trema (¨) when two vowels would clash: twee + en -> tweeën-, drie + en -> drieën-. Above 100 you stack the parts: honderd, tweehonderd, honderdvijfentwintig. Numbers below 1000 are written as one word. Decimals use komma, not a point: 3,5 = drie komma vijf. The word één (one) gets accents only to avoid confusion with een (a/an).

Forms & patterns

0-20

The tens / De tientallen

Unit before ten / Eenheid voor tiental (pattern: unit + en + ten)

Hundreds, thousands & bigger / Honderden en duizenden

Telling time / De klok (key: half drie = 2:30, half toward three)

Examples

Common mistakes

• twintig-een -> eenentwintig - the unit comes before the ten, joined by en.
• tachentig -> tachtig - 80 is just tachtig (no extra -en-); also tachtig sounds like “tach-” not “acht-”.
• half drie = 3:30 -> half drie = 2:30 - half X means “half an hour toward X”, so it’s X minus 30.
• 3.14 / drie punt veertien -> 3,14 / drie komma veertien - Dutch uses a comma for decimals (and a point/space for thousands).
• twee euros / tien jaren oud -> twee euro / tien jaar oud - euro and jaar stay singular after a number in prices and age.

Tips

• Memorize 0-12 plus the tens as fixed blocks; everything else is just unit + en + ten clicked together.
• Trema trick: add ¨ only when a vowel meets a vowel - tweeëntwintig, drieënveertig; vierentwintig needs none.
• For time, anchor on half drie = 2:30. Then count around it: tien voor half drie (2:20) and tien over half drie (2:40).
• Saying prices fast: drop euro in the middle - drie vijftig (€3,50), één negenennegentig (€1,99).

In short

Ordinal numbers (first, second, third…) say position or order. In Dutch you build them from the cardinal numbers (lesson 8): add -de for 2-19 and -ste from 20 up. Learn the three irregulars: eerste (1st), derde (3rd) and achtste (8th).

The rule

Take the cardinal number and add an ending:

• 2 to 19 -> add -de: twee -> tweede, vier -> vierde, tien -> tiende, twaalf -> twaalfde.
• 20 and higher -> add -ste: twintig -> twintigste, honderd -> honderdste, duizend -> duizendste.

Three forms break the pattern:

• 1st = eerste (not “eende”).
• 3rd = derde (not “driede”).
• 8th = achtste (just -ste, not “achtde”).

Ordinals are adjectives, so they usually follow de/het (or another determiner): de eerste dag, het derde huis, mijn tweede kans. Because they already end in -e, they don’t change further. Use them for dates, rankings/order, and floors.

Forms & patterns

Pattern summary:

Abbreviation: write the figure + e -> 1e, 2e, 3e, 8e, 20e, 100e (forms ending in -ste may also be written 8ste, 20ste).

Examples

Common mistakes

• driede -> derde - 3rd is irregular; never “driede”.
• achtde -> achtste - 8 takes -ste, not -de, like the 20+ group.
• eende / eenste -> eerste - 1st has its own form.
• twintigde -> twintigste - from 20 upward the ending is -ste, not -de.
• de tweede verdieping is de begane grond -> de begane grond is the ground floor; de eerste verdieping is one floor up. Don’t translate “first floor” word-for-word from English.

Tips

• Memory hook: -de for the small numbers (2-19), -ste once you hit the “big” twintig and beyond.
• Spoken dates can drop the ordinal: “drie mei” (cardinal) and “de derde mei” (ordinal) are both fine; in writing you just put the figure: 3 mei.
• Just three irregulars to memorise: eerste, derde, achtste. Everything else follows the rule.
• Compound ordinals add the ending only to the last word, written as one word: eenentwintig -> eenentwintigste.

In short

To ask a yes/no question, simply put the verb first, then the subject: Woon jij hier? (“Do you live here?”). There is no “do/does” in Dutch.

The rule

A statement in Dutch follows subject + verb (Jij woont hier - “You live here”). To turn it into a yes/no question, you swap them: the finite verb comes first, the subject second. This is called inversion.

• Statement: Jij woont hier. -> Question: Woon jij hier?
• Statement: Je hebt tijd. -> Question: Heb je tijd?

The one tricky point: with jij / je the verb drops its -t when it stands before the subject. So jij woont becomes woon jij?, and je hebt becomes heb je?. This only happens with jij/je - all other subjects keep their normal form.

There is no “do” in Dutch: “Do you have time?” is just Heb je tijd?, never Doe je tijd hebben?

Forms & patterns

The -t only disappears for jij / je. Compare statement and question with werken (“to work”):

The same -t drop applies to the common irregular verbs with jij/je:

Examples

Answering

• Ja = yes -> Woon jij hier? - Ja.
• Nee = no -> Heb je tijd? - Nee.
• Jawel = yes, contradicting a negative question or statement -> Je hebt zeker geen tijd? - Jawel! (“You don’t have time, right? - Yes, I do!”)

Use jawel (not plain ja) when you correct something negative. It means roughly “yes, on the contrary.”

Common mistakes

• Woont jij hier? -> Woon jij hier? - drop the -t when jij/je follows the verb.
• Doe je wonen hier? -> Woon je hier? - Dutch has no “do”; just invert the verb.
• Jij hebt tijd? -> Heb je tijd? - a real question needs the verb first, not subject first.
• Heb je geen tijd? - Ja. -> … - Jawel! - to contradict a negative, use jawel, not ja.
• Hebt je tijd? -> Heb je tijd? - the irregular jij-form hebt also loses its -t in inversion.

Tips

• Memory hook: when jij/je hops behind the verb, the -t falls off. Everywhere else the verb is unchanged.
• No “do/does” exists - just flip the word order. This makes Dutch questions shorter than English ones.
• For u nothing changes: u werkt stays Werkt u? (the -t stays).
• Reach for jawel whenever you want to say “yes” against a “no” - it is the polite way to disagree.

In short

Open questions (those that need real information, not just yes/no) start with a question word, then the finite verb, then the subject: Waar woon je? (“Where do you live?”). There is no helper like English “do”.

The rule

The basic pattern is question word + finite verb + subject + rest:

Key points:

• The verb is always in second position (V2), just like in statements; the question word fills the first slot, so the subject moves after the verb (inversion). Compare statement Je woont hier -> question Waar woon je?
• No “do”-support. English “Where do you live?” is simply Waar woon je?
• wie can be the subject (Wie komt? - Who is coming?) or the object (Wie zie je? - Who(m) do you see?).
• welk / welke = “which one (of a known set)”. Use welk with a singular het-word, welke with a singular de-word and with all plurals.
• wat voor (een) = “what kind of”. The een is optional and only appears with a singular countable noun: Wat voor (een) auto heb je? / Wat voor boeken lees je? (no een in the plural).

Forms & patterns

welk vs. welke (“which”):

Fixed combinations with hoe / hoeveel:

waar + preposition (where + with/to/from). In modern Dutch these often split, with the preposition at the end:

These combined forms work like er-words; the full system is covered in The word er.

Examples

Common mistakes

• Waarom je bent boos? -> Waarom ben je boos? - the finite verb must come second, right after the question word (V2).
• Where do you live -> Waar doe je wonen? -> Waar woon je? - Dutch has no “do”; just conjugate the main verb.
• Welke huis -> Welk huis - singular het-words take welk (no ending); de-words and plurals take welke.
• Wat boek lees je? -> Welk boek lees je? - use welk(e) to pick from a known set; wat voor (een) asks about the kind/type.
• Hoe laat ben je? (for age) -> Hoe oud ben je? - hoe laat = clock time; hoe oud = age.
• Hoe veel kost het? -> Hoeveel kost het? - hoeveel is written as one word.

Tips

• After the question word, think “verb second”: the pattern is identical to a yes/no question but with the question word stuck in front (see Yes/no questions).
• welk(e) = choose from a limited, known set; wat voor (een) = describe the type or quality. Welke jas? (which of these coats) vs. Wat voor jas? (what kind of coat).
• Many “where + preposition” questions sound more natural when split: Waar kom je vandaan? beats the bookish Waarvandaan kom je?
• Memory hook: the w-words (wie, wat, waar, wanneer, waarom, welke) cover who/what/where/when/why/which; hoe and hoeveel cover how/how much.

In short

en, maar, of, want, dus link two main clauses of equal weight. They do not change the word order: the clause after them keeps its normal subject + verb order. No inversion, and the verb does not move to the end.

The rule

A coordinating conjunction (“nevenschikkend voegwoord”) sits between two main clauses that could each stand alone. Think of it as a comma with a meaning. It joins them but stays “outside” both clauses, so it does not count as the first sentence element and therefore triggers no inversion.

Pattern: [Main clause 1] + [conjunction] + [Main clause 2 in normal order]

Ik blijf thuis  +  want  +  ik ben moe.
(subject + verb)         (subject + verb on position 2)

The five A1 conjunctions:

Key contrast - want vs. omdat. Both mean because, but they behave very differently:

Subordinating conjunctions (like omdat, dat, als, omdat, terwijl) send the verb to the end of the clause. The five conjunctions in this lesson never do that. (Full treatment of the end-of-clause verb: lesson 35.)

Forms & patterns

The second clause always keeps standard main-clause order: subject first, then the finite verb in position 2.

When both clauses have the same subject, you may drop the repeated subject after en, maar, of:

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik blijf thuis want ik moe ben -> Ik blijf thuis want ik ben moe - want is coordinating: the verb stays in position 2; it does not go to the end (that’s omdat).
• Hij is ziek en kan hij niet komen -> Hij is ziek en hij kan niet komen - en/maar/of do not trigger inversion; keep subject + verb.
• Ik ben moe, want ik ga slapen -> Ik ben moe, dus ik ga slapen - want gives the cause (the because part); dus gives the result (the so part). Don’t swap them.
• Want ik ben moe, blijf ik thuis -> Omdat ik moe ben, blijf ik thuis - a sentence cannot start with want; use omdat if the reason comes first.
• Ik blijf thuis omdat ik ben moe -> Ik blijf thuis omdat ik moe ben - the opposite trap: after omdat the verb must go to the end.

Tips

• Memory hook: these five are like a comma with meaning - they connect two “boss” clauses but never touch the word order of either one.
• want vs omdat: same meaning (“because”), but want keeps normal order and can only come in the middle; omdat sends the verb to the end and can also start a sentence.
• dus has a twist: it can also be used like an adverb in first position, which does cause inversion: Het regent, dus neem ik een paraplu is just as correct as …dus ik neem…. Both are fine - the other four conjunctions never do this.
• Quick test: if you can put the two halves in either order with no change to verb position, your conjunction is coordinating.

In short

Object pronouns (me/mij, je/jou, hem, haar, het, ons, jullie, ze/hen) replace the person or thing that receives the action, not the one that does it. Like subject pronouns, a few have a stressed and an unstressed form (me/mij, je/jou); the weak one is the everyday default. They normally stand right after the verb (or after the subject in inversion).

The rule

The subject does the action; the object gets it. Compare: Ik zie hem = I (subject) see him (object). So after the verb, switch from the subject form to the object form: ik -> me/mij, hij -> hem, zij -> haar, wij -> ons, and so on. The forms u, het and jullie look the same as the subject.

Three things matter at A1:

1. Stressed vs unstressed. For “me” and “you (sg)” the strong forms are mij and jou; the weak forms are me and je. Use the weak forms by default; use the strong ones only for emphasis or contrast: Hij belt mij, niet jou. (He’s calling ME, not you.) For the others there’s usually only one written form (hem, haar, ons, jullie, ze), though spoken Dutch reduces them too (‘m, ‘r, ‘t).

2. Direct vs indirect object. A direct object (lijdend voorwerp) is what the verb acts on directly: Ik zie hem (whom do I see?). An indirect object (meewerkend voorwerp) is the receiver, the “to/for whom”: Ik geef hem een boek = Ik geef een boek aan hem (to whom do I give the book?). The pronoun form is the same for both - only ze/hen/hun changes (see below).

3. Position. The object pronoun comes straight after the finite verb in a normal statement, and straight after the subject when the sentence starts with something else (inversion). Weak pronouns “stick” as far to the front as possible.

Forms & patterns

Forms in brackets (‘m, ‘r, ‘t) are spoken reductions - fine to recognise, but write the full form.

hen / hun / ze - the simple version. Many natives mix these up, so keep it easy:

Rule of thumb: when in doubt, say ze, or use aan + hen. You can avoid hun entirely and still be correct.

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik zie hij. -> Ik zie hem. - after the verb you need the object form, not the subject form (hij -> hem, zij -> haar).
• Dit cadeau is voor jij. -> Dit cadeau is voor jou. - after a preposition use the strong object form (jou, mij, hem, haar, hen).
• Ik zie hun. -> Ik zie ze / hen. - “hun” is not a direct object; use ze (default) or hen.
• Hij belt me, niet je. -> Hij belt mij, niet jou. - for contrast/emphasis you must use the stressed forms mij/jou, not me/je.
• Geef het boek mij. -> Geef mij het boek / Geef het boek aan mij. - the indirect object pronoun goes before the direct-object noun, or use “aan” after it.

Tips

• Memory hook: subject hij/zij/wij end the sentence’s start; the objects hem/haar/ons end in soft consonants - say them right after the verb.
• Default to the weak forms (me, je, ze). Switch to mij, jou, hem, hen only for stress, contrast, or after a preposition (voor mij, met jou, aan hen).
• Two objects? Order is indirect before direct when both are nouns: Ik geef de man het boek - or rephrase with aan: Ik geef het boek aan de man.
• Can’t decide hen vs hun? Use ze, or aan hen. Both are always safe and natural.

In short

Possessive pronouns say who something belongs to: mijn boek (my book), haar auto (her car). They go straight in front of the noun and almost never change form. The one exception is ons / onze: use ons before a het-word, onze before a de-word and before every plural.

The rule

Put the possessive directly before the noun, just like English “my / your / her”: mijn huis, jouw fiets, haar tas. There is no inflection for de/het or singular/plural - one form fits every noun. So mijn boek and mijn boeken, zijn auto and zijn auto’s: the possessive itself stays the same.

The single exception is ons / onze (“our”):

• ons + a het-word (singular) -> ons huis, ons kind, ons land
• onze + a de-word (singular) -> onze auto, onze tuin, onze hond
• onze + any plural (de-word or het-word) -> onze auto’s, onze kinderen, onze huizen

Stressed vs unstressed: a few forms have a weak spoken variant (mijn -> m’n, zijn -> z’n, haar -> d’r/‘r). These belong to casual speech; in normal writing use the full form mijn, zijn, haar.

To stress ownership or to say “mine, yours” on its own, use van + the object pronoun (see lesson 13): Die fiets is van mij = That bike is mine. Is dat boek van jou? = Is that book yours?

For names you have two everyday options:

• Possessive -s: add -s to the name, no apostrophe -> Jans boek, Maries jas, Peters auto.
• van + name: het boek van Jan, de jas van Marie. This is very common, especially in speech.

Forms & patterns

Note: when the owner is jullie, the possessive may shrink to je if it is clear from context: Hebben jullie je paspoort bij je? Otherwise use jullie boek.

The ons/onze choice at a glance:

Examples

Common mistakes

• onze huis -> ons huis - “huis” is a het-word, so use ons (not onze) in the singular.
• ons auto -> onze auto - “auto” is a de-word; de-words and all plurals take onze.
• mijne boek / mijnen huis -> mijn boek - possessives never add endings (only ons/onze changes).
• jou boek -> jouw boek - the possessive is jouw (with -w); jou (no -w) is the object pronoun, as in voor jou.
• Jan’s boek -> Jans boek - the possessive -s on a name takes no apostrophe.

Tips

• Memory hook for the only irregular one: ons + het-word, onze for everything else (de-words and all plurals).
• Spelling trap: jouw = possessive (“your” + noun), jou = object (“to/for you”). They sound identical, so listen for what follows: a noun -> jouw, otherwise -> jou.
• Need “mine / yours / his” by itself? Switch to van + object pronoun: van mij, van jou, van hem, van haar, van ons, van hen (see lesson 13).
• The weak forms m’n, z’n, d’r are fine when speaking, but write mijn, zijn, haar in normal text.

In short

Dutch has four “pointing” words. Two depend on gender/number: deze/die go with de-words and all plurals, dit/dat go with het-words. Two depend on distance: deze/dit = near (“this/these”), die/dat = far (“that/those”). They sit where the article would (deze stoel, not de deze stoel) and can also stand alone (Dat is mooi).

The rule

Pick the demonstrative from two questions at the same time:

1. De-word/plural or het-word? (the gender you learned in lesson 3)
   • de-word or any plural -> deze / die
   • het-word (singular) -> dit / dat
2. Near or far?
   • near (this/these) -> deze / dit
   • far (that/those) -> die / dat

So de stoel (chair) gives deze stoel (this chair) / die stoel (that chair), while het boek (book) gives dit boek (this book) / dat boek (that book). In the plural everything is a de-word, so plurals always use deze/die: deze boeken, die stoelen.

Demonstratives replace the article - never use both: say deze stoel, not de deze stoel. Any adjective after them still inflects normally (see lesson 16): deze grote stoel.

As standalone pronouns (no noun follows) the same four words mean “this one / that one”:

• Welke wil je? Deze. - Which one do you want? This one.
• Wie is die? - Who is that (person)?

To open a sentence by identifying or introducing something (often pointing at a whole situation, or before you know its gender), Dutch uses the neutral dit/dat, even before a plural - the verb still agrees with what follows:

• Dat is mooi. - That is beautiful.
• Dit zijn mijn ouders. - These are my parents.

Forms & patterns

The 2 x 2 system

Article -> demonstrative (same slot)

Examples

Common mistakes

• dit stoel -> deze stoel - stoel is a de-word, so it takes deze/die, never dit/dat.
• deze boek -> dit boek - boek is a het-word; use dit/dat.
• dit kinderen -> deze kinderen - all plurals are de-words, so they always take deze/die.
• de deze auto -> deze auto - the demonstrative replaces the article; don’t use both.
• Deze is mijn moeder (introducing a person) -> Dit is mijn moeder - to present/identify, use neutral dit/dat, not deze/die.
• Deze huis is groot -> Dit huis is groot - mixing near/far is fine, but the gender (het -> dit/dat) must match.

Tips

• Sound hook: dit ~ thIs and dat ~ thAt (same vowels), and both contain a t like het - so the t-words go with het-words.
• Gender hook: deze and die start like de; dit/dat belong to het. First decide de or het, then near or far.
• Near vs far: deze/dit = close to you (this/these); die/dat = further away (that/those).
• When you start a sentence to point something out or introduce people, default to Dit/Dat is… / Dit/Dat zijn… regardless of the noun’s gender.

In short

An adjective in front of a noun almost always takes an extra -e (de grote man, een grote man, grote mannen, het grote huis). The only exception is a singular het-word with een or no article, which keeps the bare form (een groot huis). After the verb (predicative) there is never an -e: het huis is groot.

The rule

When an adjective stands directly before a noun, you normally add -e:

• de-words, both with de and een: de grote man, een grote man
• all plurals: grote mannen, grote huizen
• het-words with het (definite): het grote huis

There is one exception: a het-word that is singular AND has een or no article -> no -e:

• een groot huis, groot huis, wat een mooi huis

When the adjective comes after the noun, as a predicate (with zijn, worden, blijven), it never gets -e: het huis is groot, de man is groot.

Forms & patterns

Spelling when you add -e (the sound must stay the same):

Adjectives that never change:

• material adjectives in -en: houten (wooden), gouden (golden), zilveren (silver), wollen (woollen) -> de houten tafel, een gouden ring
• a few in -a / -e (and most colour loanwords): prima, extra, roze (pink), oranje (orange), beige -> een roze jas, een oranje trui

Examples

Common mistakes

• een grote huis -> een groot huis - a singular het-word with een takes no -e.
• het huis is grote -> het huis is groot - predicative adjectives (after the verb) never take -e.
• de groot man -> de grote man - de-words always take -e before the noun.
• een houtene tafel -> een houten tafel - material adjectives in -en never inflect.
• een rozee jas -> een roze jas - words already ending in -e/-a stay unchanged.

Tips

• Remember just one “no -e” trigger before a noun: het-word + singular + indefinite (een/no article). Everything else before a noun gets -e.
• Quick test: with de, plural, or het, always add -e. Only een/geen/no article + a singular het-word drops the -e (een groot huis, but het grote huis).
• Spelling hook: keep the vowel sound. Long vowel loses a letter (groot -> grote), short vowel doubles the consonant (wit -> witte), and f/s soften to v/z (lief -> lieve, vies -> vieze).
• After zijn, worden, blijven the adjective is bare: de soep is lekker, het wordt koud.

In short

An adverb tells how, when, where or how much. Most Dutch adverbs look exactly like the adjective, with no ending added (snel, goed). Learn the high-frequency special ones by heart: graag/liever/het liefst (to like/prefer doing), al / nog / nog niet / niet meer (already/still/not yet/no longer) and the “very” words heel/erg/zeer.

The rule

Form. Unlike English (quick -> quickly), Dutch does not add an ending to make an adverb. The same word modifies a verb or another word, and it never inflects:

graag = “like to do”. Dutch has no everyday verb “to like + activity”. You add graag to the verb instead. Its comparative is liever (prefer) and superlative het liefst(e) (like best of all):

• Ik drink graag koffie. = I like drinking coffee.
• Ik drink liever thee. = I’d rather drink tea.
• Ik drink het liefst water. = Most of all I like drinking water.

al / nog and their negatives. These four words form a tidy 2x2 system - learn them as pairs, not one by one:

Degree: heel / erg / zeer = “very”. All three intensify an adjective or adverb and stay uninflected. heel and erg are everyday; zeer is formal/written. te = too (much):

• Het is heel/erg mooi. = It’s very beautiful. - Het is te duur. = It’s too expensive.

even = “(for) a moment, just” softens a request (Wacht even = hold on a sec). ook = also/too.

Forms & patterns

Position - the middle field. Short adverbs like graag, al, nog, even, ook sit in the “middle field”: after the finite verb (and after a pronoun object), before the rest. Remember main-clause V2 (lesson 6): the verb stays in slot 2.

Order of free adverbs: Time - Manner - Place (TMP). When several stack up, Dutch uses tijd -> manier -> plaats:

Degree words hug their word: heel/erg/zeer/te go directly in front of the adjective or adverb: heel mooi, erg leuk, te laat.

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik graag koffie drink. -> Ik drink graag koffie. - the finite verb must stay in second position (V2); graag follows it.
• Hij rijdt snelle. -> Hij rijdt snel. - an adverb never takes the adjective -e ending.
• Ik ben nog niet moe… (meaning “no longer”) -> Ik ben niet meer moe. - “not yet” = nog niet; “no longer/not anymore” = niet meer.
• Het is hele mooi. -> Het is heel mooi. - heel as a degree adverb stays uninflected (the -e only appears inside a noun phrase, e.g. een hele mooie dag).
• Ik hou graag van koffie. -> Ik drink graag koffie (or: Ik hou van koffie). - graag attaches to the activity verb; don’t combine it with “houden van”.

Tips

• Treat graag/liever/het liefst as the Dutch way to say like/prefer/love doing - they replace a missing verb, so they always sit next to one.
• Pair the time words as opposites: al <-> nog niet, nog <-> niet meer. Asking “start or continuation?” tells you which to use.
• In speech use heel or erg for “very”; save zeer for formal writing. te always means “too (much)”, never “very”.
• When adverbs pile up, whisper “T-M-P” (tijd-manier-plaats) to get the order right.

In short

A diminutive turns a noun into something small, cute, affectionate, or a portion by adding -je. The exact ending (-je, -tje, -etje, -pje, -kje) depends on the final sound of the word. Every diminutive is a het-word and makes its plural with -s.

The rule

Pick the suffix by listening to the last sound, not just the spelling:

• -je - the default, after most consonants: boek -> boekje, kop -> kopje, kat -> katje, huis -> huisje.
• -tje - after a vowel, or after -l / -n / -r / -w preceded by a long vowel, diphthong or schwa: vrouw -> vrouwtje, ei -> eitje, stoel -> stoeltje, tafel -> tafeltje.
• -etje - after a short stressed vowel + l, m, n, ng, r; the consonant is doubled: bal -> balletje, man -> mannetje, kom -> kommetje, ring -> ringetje.
• -pje - after m that follows a long vowel, diphthong or l/r: boom -> boompje, raam -> raampje, arm -> armpje.
• -kje - after unstressed -ing; the -ng becomes -nk: koning -> koninkje, woning -> woninkje.

Watch the spelling: a word ending in a single long-vowel letter doubles that vowel before -tje: auto -> autootje, foto -> fotootje, paraplu -> parapluutje.

Forms & patterns

Long-vowel spelling before -tje:

Always het, plural -s:

Examples

Common mistakes

• de huisje -> het huisje - every diminutive is a het-word, no exceptions.
• balje / manje -> balletje / mannetje - short vowel + l/m/n/r takes -etje with a doubled consonant.
• boometje / kompje -> boompje / kommetje - long vowel + m -> -pje; short vowel + m -> -etje.
• autotje -> autootje - double the long vowel letter before -tje.
• huisjen / mannetjen -> huisjes / mannetjes - the diminutive plural is always -s, never -en.
• stoelje -> stoeltje - after a long vowel + l/n/r you need -tje, not bare -je.

Tips

• Two safe constants: a diminutive is always het and its plural is always -s. Learn those once and stop worrying.
• Trust your ears: kom has a short vowel (-> kommetje), boom has a long one (-> boompje).
• The m-rule trips everyone: short vowel = -etje, long vowel/diphthong/l/r = -pje.
• Diminutives soften and shrink: order a portion (een biertje, een kwartiertje, een bakje koffie) or sound friendly (een momentje, een vraagje). A few words almost only live as diminutives: meisje, ijsje, toetje.

In short

Prepositions are little words (in, op, naar, om, …) that link a noun to the rest of the sentence and tell you where, when or which way. Dutch and English often line up, but a few are tricky: op vs in vs aan for places, and naar (movement to) vs in (being inside). Learn them in fixed phrases, not one by one.

The rule

A preposition sits before its noun (its “object”): in de kamer, op de tafel, naar het station. The noun keeps its normal article (de/het/een), so you also need to know the gender (see lesson 3). Three jobs to keep apart:

1. Place (waar?) - where something is: De boeken liggen op de tafel.
2. Time (wanneer?) - when something happens: De winkel opent om negen uur.
3. Direction (waarheen / waarvandaan?) - movement to or from: Ik fiets naar mijn werk.

The hard part is that one English preposition can map to several Dutch ones (and back). The most common A1 traps:

• op / in / aan. Use in for an enclosed space (inside): in de doos, in de auto, in Nederland. Use op for a flat surface or “platform-like” places: op de tafel, op de fiets, op straat, op school, op kantoor. Use aan for “attached to” or “at the edge of”: aan de muur, aan het raam, aan zee, aan tafel (seated).
• naar vs in. naar = movement toward a destination (with gaan, lopen, rijden, fietsen): Ik ga naar de stad. in = simply being inside: Ik ben in de stad. For “home” it is always naar huis (going) and thuis (being there) - never naar thuis.

Combinations where the preposition belongs to the verb (wachten op, denken aan, houden van) follow their own logic - that is lesson 40 (Fixed prepositions).

Forms & patterns

Place / Plaats (waar?)

Time / Tijd (wanneer?)

Direction / Richting (waarheen / waarvandaan?)

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik ga naar thuis. -> Ik ga naar huis. - “thuis” already means at home; for direction it is just naar huis.
• Ik zit op de auto. -> Ik zit in de auto. - you sit inside a car, so in (but op de fiets, because you sit on top).
• op de stad / op Nederland -> in de stad / in Nederland. - cities and countries take in.
• Aan maandag. -> Op maandag. - days of the week take op; clock times take om (om drie uur), months/years take in (in mei).
• Ze komt van Spanje. -> Ze komt uit Spanje. - origin from a country or city uses uit, not van.

Tips

• Three-word memory hook for place: in = box (enclosed), op = table (flat surface), aan = wall (attached / at the edge).
• Time staircase: om (clock) -> op (day) -> in (month/year/season). Smallest unit = om, biggest = in.
• A fronted preposition phrase triggers inversion (verb stays second): In de zomer ga ik naar Italie. / Om acht uur begint de film. (See lesson 6.)
• Movement = naar (Ik ga naar …); staying put = the place preposition (Ik ben in / op / bij …). richting is a casual cousin of naar and often drops the article: richting centrum.

In short

To give a command, instruction or invitation, use the bare verb stem (the same form as ik): Kom! (Come!), Wacht even! (Wait a moment!). There is no subject pronoun. Make it negative with niet (Niet doen!), polite with u (Komt u binnen), and friendlier with the little words even / maar / eens.

The rule

The imperative is the easiest verb form in Dutch: it is just the stem, used with no subject.

• The stem = infinitive minus -en, with normal spelling rules: keep long vowels (maken -> maak), simplify a doubled consonant (zitten -> zit), devoice the final consonant (lezen -> lees, geven -> geef).
• It is identical to the ik-form: if you can say ik kom, the command is Kom!
• One stem covers both “you” (singular jij) and “you all” (plural jullie) - the form never changes.

Particles to soften it. A bare stem can sound blunt, so Dutch adds an unstressed particle:

Negative command. Put niet after the verb, or use the bare infinitive on signs/notices:

• Doe dat niet! (Don’t do that!) - Niet doen! (Don’t!) - Niet roken. (No smoking.)

Polite / formal with u. Two options:

• stem + -t + u: Komt u binnen. (Do come in.) - Gaat u zitten. (Please sit down.)
• or just the stem + alstublieft: Kom binnen, alstublieft.

laten we… = let’s… Includes yourself in the suggestion: Laten we beginnen. (Let’s begin.)

Forms & patterns

From infinitive to command

Separable verbs - the prefix goes to the end:

Irregular: zijn & hebben

Examples

Common mistakes

• Kom jij hier! -> Kom hier! - the imperative has no subject pronoun (drop jij/je).
• Komen hier! -> Kom hier! - use the stem, not the infinitive, for a direct command.
• Staan op! / Op staan! -> Sta op! - separable verb = stem + particle at the end.
• Lez dit / Mak je huiswerk -> Lees dit / Maak je huiswerk - spelling rules still apply (devoice z -> s, keep the long vowel aa).
• Niet doe dat! -> Doe dat niet! - in a direct command niet comes after the verb (the bare Niet doen! is for signs/short orders).
• Laat we gaan! -> Laten we gaan! - the fixed form is laten we, not laat we.

Tips

• Know the ik-form, know the command: ik wacht -> Wacht!, ik geef -> Geef!
• A bare command can sound bossy. Add even / maar / eens (or alstublieft) to sound friendly: Wacht even is far nicer than a sharp Wacht!
• Use alsjeblieft with je-commands and alstublieft with the polite u-form.
• For separable verbs, always send the prefix to the end: opletten -> Let op! (Watch out!).
• Laten we… = “let’s…”; Niet…! + infinitive = a quick “don’t…” (Niet vergeten! = Don’t forget!).

In short

Dutch has six modal verbs - kunnen, mogen, moeten, willen, zullen and hoeven (te) - that express ability, permission, obligation, wish or the future. The modal is conjugated in second position; the main verb stays as an infinitive and moves to the end of the sentence.

The rule

A modal verb almost never stands alone: it teams up with a second verb that names the action. The pattern is:

Subject + modal (conjugated) + … + infinitive (at the end).

Each modal has a core meaning:

Note that hoeven always takes te before the infinitive, and it is used almost only in negative or restricted sentences (with niet, geen, alleen, maar).

moeten niet vs hoeven niet te

This contrast trips up almost every learner:

So the negative of obligation (“you don’t have to”) is hoeven niet te, not “moeten niet”.

Forms & patterns

Present tense. Watch the irregular jij/je forms and the alternates used after the verb (inversion / questions):

After the verb (inversion / questions) the -t of jij drops: kun je / kan je?, wil je?, zul je?, hoef je? (compare regular verbs, which also lose the -t: werk je?).

Brief past forms (imperfect) - you will meet these later, here as a preview:

* wou is a common spoken singular form of wilde; wilde is the standard written form.

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik wil gaan naar huis -> Ik wil naar huis gaan - the infinitive must go to the very end of the clause.
• Je moet niet komen (meaning “you don’t have to”) -> Je hoeft niet te komen - “moeten niet” means must not (prohibition), not don’t have to.
• Je hoeft niet komen -> Je hoeft niet te komen - hoeven always needs te before the infinitive.
• Jij kan / Jij wil het doen -> standard written form Jij kunt / Jij wilt het doen - the -t form is preferred for jij before the verb (though kan/wil is heard).
• Kunt je me helpen? -> Kun je me helpen? - drop the -t when je comes after the verb.

Tips

• Memory hook for word order: the modal goes to slot 2, the action verb is kicked to the end. Only one verb gets conjugated; the other stays as a plain infinitive.
• “Don’t have to” = hoeven niet te; “must not” = moeten niet (mogen niet). Keep these two apart - it changes the meaning completely.
• zullen is mainly used for offers/suggestions (Zal ik…? / Zullen we…?) and promises; for plain future, Dutch often just uses the present tense or gaan (see lesson 25).
• Only hoeven uses te; the other five modals take a bare infinitive (no te).

In short

The present perfect = the present of hebben or zijn + a past participle at the end of the clause (Ik heb gewerkt, Zij is gegaan). It is the everyday way Dutch talks about the past in speech.

The rule

You need two things: an auxiliary (helper verb) and a past participle.

1. Auxiliary (hebben or zijn) is conjugated and sits in the normal verb-second (V2) slot.
2. Past participle is fixed and goes to the end of the clause.

Ik heb gisteren een brief geschreven. - I wrote a letter yesterday.

Making the past participle

• Weak verbs: ge- + stem + -t or -d. Use -t if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant from ‘t kofschip (t, k, f, s, ch, p); otherwise -d.
  • maken -> gemaakt, werken -> gewerkt (k, voiceless -> -t)
  • horen -> gehoord, spelen -> gespeeld (r, l, voiced -> -d)
• Strong verbs: ge- + (often a vowel change) + -en. These must be learned.
  • eten -> gegeten, lopen -> gelopen, schrijven -> geschreven, drinken -> gedronken
• No ge- with the unstressed prefixes be-, ge-, er-, her-, ont-, ver-.
  • verkopen -> verkocht, betalen -> betaald, ontmoeten -> ontmoet
• But -eren verbs DO take ge- (they are not prefixed):
  • studeren -> gestudeerd, feliciteren -> gefeliciteerd

hebben or zijn?

Use zijn for a change of state/location and motion to a destination. A small, learnable group:

For everything else, use hebben.

Forms & patterns

Auxiliaries (present)

Sentence frame

Strong participle starter list

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik heb naar huis gegaan -> Ik ben naar huis gegaan - gaan (motion to a destination) takes zijn, not hebben.
• Ik heb gemaakt mijn huiswerk -> Ik heb mijn huiswerk gemaakt - the participle must go to the end of the clause.
• Ik heb gewerk -> Ik heb gewerkt - weak participle of werken needs -t (‘t kofschip: k is voiceless).
• Ik heb het gehoort -> Ik heb het gehoord - stem ends in r (voiced), so -d, not -t.
• Ik heb het geverkocht -> Ik heb het verkocht - prefix ver- takes no ge-.

Tips

• Mnemonic for the -t/-d choice: the voiceless letters live in ‘t kofschip (t-k-f-s-ch-p) -> -t. Anything else -> -d.
• The zijn group is small (gaan, komen, worden, blijven, zijn, gebeuren, beginnen, stoppen). Memorize it; assume hebben for the rest.
• Two-part rule: conjugate the auxiliary in second position, park the participle at the end.
• This is the spoken past tense - in conversation Dutch uses the perfectum far more than the imperfect (see lesson 23/40).

In short

The imperfect (imperfectum) is the simple past. Weak verbs add -te(n) or -de(n) to the stem (the choice follows the ‘t kofschip rule); strong verbs change their vowel and add nothing. Use it for descriptions, background and past habits, often with toen.

The rule

Weak verbs. Take the stem (infinitive minus -en) and add an ending. The whole singular (ik / jij / hij) gets -te or -de; the whole plural (wij / jullie / zij) gets -ten or -den. There is no extra -t for jij or u in the past.

Which one, -te or -de? Use the ‘t kofschip rule: if the stem ends in one of the voiceless sounds in ‘t kofschip (t, k, f, s, ch, p), use -te(n); otherwise use -de(n).

• werken -> stem werk (ends in k) -> werkte / werkten
• horen -> stem hoor (ends in r) -> hoorde / hoorden
• antwoorden -> stem antwoord (ends in d) -> antwoordde / antwoordden (the stem’s own d + -de = dd)

Strong / irregular verbs do not take -te/-de at all: they change the stem vowel and add no ending in the singular, -en in the plural. The singular and plural often have a different vowel (was/waren, gaf/gaven). These you simply learn.

Forms & patterns

Weak verbs (one -te type, one -de type):

High-frequency strong verbs (learn by heart):

Examples

Common mistakes

• ik werkde -> ik werkte - werk ends in k, a ‘t kofschip sound, so it takes -te.
• hij antwoorde -> hij antwoordde - the stem antwoord already ends in d, so d + -de gives a double dd.
• wij was -> wij waren - the plural needs a plural form; was is only ik/hij/zij singular.
• jij hoordet -> jij hoorde - never add an extra -t to jij/u in the past (that is only present tense).
• ik gingde / ik gaande -> ik ging - strong verbs change the vowel and add no -te/-de.

Tips

• ‘t kofschip (or ‘t fokschaap) lists the voiceless consonants t, k, f, s, ch, p. Stem ends in one of them -> -te(n); anything else -> -de(n).
• Plural is just singular + -n: -te -> -ten, -de -> -den. So if you can do the singular, the plural is free.
• Verbs in -ven and -zen take -de(n), because their real sound is voiced: leven -> leefde, reizen -> reisde.
• For single completed events in conversation Dutch usually prefers the perfect (lesson 22); for background, descriptions and habits (often with toen) use the imperfect. See lesson 39 for the full choice.

In short

The past perfect (Dutch: voltooid verleden tijd / plusquamperfectum) describes the “past before the past”: something already finished before another past moment. You build it with the imperfect of hebben/zijn (had/hadden, was/waren) + a past participle: Toen ik aankwam, was hij al vertrokken.

The rule

Formula: had / hadden / was / waren (imperfect of the helper verb) + past participle.

It is exactly the present perfect (lesson 22) shifted one step further back in time:

Same hebben/zijn choice as the perfect. If a verb takes hebben in the present perfect, it takes had/hadden here; if it takes zijn, it takes was/waren. Verbs of motion and change of state take zijn (gaan -> was gegaan, vertrekken -> was vertrokken); most others take hebben (zien -> had gezien).

When to use it. Use it for the earlier of two past events - the one that was already complete. It very often appears with toen (when) and nadat (after), which signal the time order:

• Toen ik thuiskwam, had zij al gegeten. = When I got home, she had already eaten.
• Nadat we gegeten hadden, gingen we wandelen. = After we had eaten, we went for a walk.

Forms & patterns

Imperfect of the two helper verbs:

Two full examples (hebben-verb zien, zijn-verb gaan):

Word order - main clause (V2). The helper verb is the finite verb and sits in position 2; the past participle goes to the very end:

Word order - subordinate clause. After toen / nadat / omdat / dat … both verbs move to the end, helper usually before the participle:

• … omdat hij de film al had gezien.
• Nadat we gegeten hadden, … (the auxiliary may also come last: hadden gegeten is equally correct).

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik heb het al gezien, toen je belde. -> Ik had het al gezien toen je belde. - for the “past before the past” use the imperfect helper (had/was), not the present (heb/ben).
• Hij had vertrokken. -> Hij was vertrokken. - keep the same hebben/zijn choice as the perfect; vertrekken takes zijn.
• Nadat we hadden gegeten gingen we… wrong order: …we gegeten -> Nadat we gegeten hadden, gingen we… - in a sub-clause both verbs go to the end (and the main clause then starts with its verb: inversion).
• Toen ik aankwam, hij was al weg. -> Toen ik aankwam, was hij al weg. - the main clause after a fronted toen-clause starts with the verb (V2 inversion).
• Ze had haar huiswerk niet maakte. -> Ze had haar huiswerk niet gemaakt. - the second verb is a past participle, not a finite past form.

Tips

• Think of it as “perfect, one step back”: just swap heb/ben for had/was. Everything else (participle, hebben/zijn choice) stays identical.
• English “had + done” maps almost 1:1 onto Dutch “had/was + participle” - a reliable trigger.
• Two past events in one sentence? Put the earlier, already-finished one in the past perfect and the later one in the imperfect (lesson 23).
• Nadat almost always pairs with the past perfect: Nadat ik … had ge-…, (imperfect main clause).

In short

Dutch has no single future ending. To talk about the future you use gaan + infinitive (plans/intentions), zullen + infinitive (promises, predictions, offers, suggestions), or simply the present tense + a time word. The infinitive always goes to the end of the sentence.

The rule

1. Present tense + time word is the most common way to express the future in everyday speech. The time word (morgen, straks, volgende week…) signals that it is future.

• Morgen werk ik thuis. - Tomorrow I work / I’ll be working from home.
• Volgende week begint de cursus. - Next week the course starts.

2. gaan + infinitive expresses a plan, an intention, or something about to happen. It is the everyday “going to” future.

• Ik ga morgen koken. - I’m going to cook tomorrow.
• Het gaat regenen. - It’s going to rain.

3. zullen + infinitive is more formal/marked. Use it for:

• promises: Ik zal je helpen. (I will help you.)
• predictions / probability (often with wel): Het zal wel regenen. (It will probably rain.)
• offers: Zal ik het raam openzetten? (Shall I open the window?)
• suggestions (we-questions): Zullen we gaan? (Shall we go?)

In all three patterns the conjugated verb (gaan/zullen) takes position 2, and the infinitive moves to the end of the clause.

Forms & patterns

zullen (present)

Note: with jij/je both zult and zal are correct; zult is a bit more formal. After inversion (question): zul jij…? / zal jij…?

gaan (present)

Sentence pattern

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik zal koken het eten. -> Ik zal het eten koken. - the infinitive must go to the end of the clause.
• Ik wil je helpen (meaning “I will help you”) -> Ik zal je helpen. - use zullen, not willen, for a promise; willen means “want to”.
• Ik ga ben moe / Ik ga te koken -> Ik ga koken. - after gaan/zullen use a bare infinitive, no te and no second finite verb.
• Ik zal naar huis morgen -> Ik ga morgen naar huis / Morgen ga ik naar huis. - don’t drop the verb; keep V2 word order.
• Jij zal komen? is fine, but the textbook form is Jij zult komen / Zul jij komen? - remember the -t with jij/je.

Tips

• Default to present + time word for plans; it sounds the most natural: Morgen ga ik naar de dokter.
• Think of gaan as English “going to” (intention) and zullen as “shall/will” (promise, prediction, offer).
• Zal ik…? = “Shall I…?” (one person offering); Zullen we…? = “Shall we…?” (suggestion to the group).
• zullen + wel softens a statement into a guess: Hij zal het wel weten. (He probably knows.)

In short

To compare, add -er to the adjective (groter = bigger) and -st for the top (grootst = biggest). Use … -er dan for “more … than” and zo … als for “as … as”.

The rule

Dutch has three degrees, just like English big - bigger - biggest:

• Positive (basisvorm): the plain adjective - snel (fast).
• Comparative (vergrotende trap): add -er - sneller (faster).
• Superlative (overtreffende trap): add -st - snelst (fastest).

Spelling follows the normal rules: keep the vowel length. After a short vowel, double the consonant (snel -> sneller); after a long vowel in an open syllable, keep one consonant (groot -> groter).

Two special endings:

• Adjectives ending in -r add -der (not just -er): duur -> duurder, lekker -> lekkerder, ver -> verder.
• Adjectives ending in -s just add -t in the superlative: vies -> viest, fris -> frist.

For long or foreign adjectives, use meest instead of -st: meest interessant (most interesting).

Comparing things:

• as … as = zo … als -> Jan is zo groot als Tim. (Jan is as tall as Tim.)
• … than = … -er dan -> Jan is groter dan Tim. (Jan is taller than Tim.)

Superlative with de/het: predicatively (no noun after) use het …-st: In juni zijn de dagen het langst. Attributively (before a noun) use de/het …-ste: de snelste auto, het snelste kind.

hoe …, hoe … = the …, the …: Hoe meer je oefent, hoe beter je wordt. The verb goes to the end in both halves.

Forms & patterns

Regular formation

Irregular forms

Attributive inflection (before a noun, like any adjective - see lesson 16)

The superlative almost always appears with de/het and therefore ends in -ste: de beste, het grootste, mijn liefste vriend.

Examples

Common mistakes

• groter als -> groter dan - after a comparative use dan; als is only for equality (zo … als).
• meer groot -> groter - Dutch adds -er; it does not use meer with short adjectives.
• duurer -> duurder - adjectives ending in -r take -der.
• goeder / beterst -> beter / best - goed is irregular: goed - beter - best.
• de snelle auto (meaning “fastest”) -> de snelste auto - the superlative needs -st(e).

Tips

• Mind the vowel: short vowel doubles the consonant (snel -> sneller), long vowel keeps one (groot -> groter).
• Quick check: if you would say more/most in English with a long word, use meer/meest in Dutch (meest interessant).
• Memorise the four irregulars as a chant: goed-beter-best, veel-meer-meest, weinig-minder-minst, graag-liever-liefst.
• Superlatives nearly always carry -ste because they follow de/het: de snelste, het grootste.

In short

A separable verb is one word made of a stressed prefix + a verb (e.g. opbellen “to call up”). In a main clause the prefix splits off and jumps to the end; it stays attached in the infinitive, in subordinate clauses, in the participle (ge- slips inside: opgebeld), and with te (op te bellen).

The rule

The key is stress: in a separable verb the prefix is stressed (ÓPbellen, MÉÉkomen). That stressed prefix is removable.

1. Main clause (V2): the conjugated verb takes position 2; the prefix flies to the end of the clause. Ik bel je vanavond op.
2. Question / inversion: same thing - the prefix still goes to the end. Kom je mee?
3. Infinitive: the verb is written as one word (after a modal, gaan, willen, te…). Ik wil je opbellen.
4. Subordinate clause: the whole verb stays joined and goes to the end. …, omdat ik je morgen opbel.
5. Participle: insert ge- between prefix and stem -> opgebeld, meegekomen.
6. te + infinitive: te goes between prefix and stem -> op te bellen.

Forms & patterns

Using opbellen (to call up) as the model:

Common separable prefixes (each adds meaning - learn them with the verb):

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik opbel je. -> Ik bel je op. - In a main clause the prefix must split off and go to the end.
• Ik heb je geopbeld. -> Ik heb je opgebeld. - ge- goes inside, between prefix and stem, never in front.
• Ik wil je op bellen. -> Ik wil je opbellen. - The infinitive is one word; don’t split it.
• …, omdat ik je bel op. -> …, omdat ik je opbel. - In a subordinate clause the verb stays joined at the very end.
• Ik probeer je opbellen te / op bellen te. -> Ik probeer je op te bellen. - te slips between prefix and stem.

Tips

• Stress test: if the prefix is stressed (ÓPbellen, ÁFwassen), the verb is separable. If the stem is stressed (beTÁlen, verKÓpen), it is inseparable -> see lesson 28.
• In a main clause the prefix “flies to the end” - it is often the last word, even after long objects and adverbs.
• Two little words sneak inside the verb: ge- (participle) and te (te-infinitive). Everything else keeps prefix and stem together.
• Always learn the prefix together with the verb, because the prefix carries the meaning (gaan = to go, but uitgaan = to go out, doorgaan = to continue).

In short

Some verb prefixes never split off and carry no stress: be-, ge-, er-, her-, ont-, ver-. The verb stays in one piece, and its past participle takes no extra ge- (betalen -> betaald, verkopen -> verkocht).

The rule

In Lesson 27 you saw that a separable prefix is stressed and splits off (opbellen -> ik bel op; participle opgebeld). Inseparable verbs are the mirror image:

1. The prefix is unstressed - the stress falls on the verb root (betA-len, not BE-talen).
2. The prefix never splits off, in any tense or position.
3. The past participle takes no ge-, because the unstressed prefix already sits in front.

The six always-inseparable prefixes are fixed - memorise them:

Forms & patterns

The verb behaves like an ordinary one-piece verb. Compare a separable verb with an inseparable one:

Past participles still follow the regular weak/strong rules on the root; only the ge- is dropped:

Dual prefixes

A few prefixes - door, over, onder, voor, om, aan, achter - can go either way, with a stress + meaning difference. Stressed = separable (literal); unstressed = inseparable (often figurative).

Het ongeluk kwam vaak voor. = The accident happened often. (separable) De dokter wil het ongeluk voorkomen. = The doctor wants to prevent the accident. (inseparable)

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik heb gebetaald -> Ik heb betaald - no extra ge-; an unstressed prefix already blocks it.
• Ik koop het huis ver -> Ik verkoop het huis - inseparable prefixes never split off.
• om be te talen -> om te betalen - te goes before the whole verb, never inside it (unlike separable om op te bellen).
• Ik heb het geontdekt -> Ik heb het ontdekt - same no-ge- rule for ont-.
• De dokter wil het ongeluk voorgekomen -> …wil het ongeluk voorkomen - the “prevent” meaning is inseparable, so no ge-.

Tips

• Memorise the six fixed prefixes as one chant: be- ge- er- her- ont- ver-. If a verb starts with one of these, it is always inseparable.
• The “no ge-” rule has a logic: these prefixes are already unstressed front-syllables, and Dutch never stacks an extra unstressed ge- in front.
• Listen to the stress. Prefix stressed = it splits (separable); root stressed = it stays (inseparable). This is the key for the dual prefixes door/over/onder/voor/om/aan/achter.
• For dual-prefix verbs, learn the two meanings as a pair (voorkomen “occur” vs voorkomen “prevent”) so the stress comes automatically.

In short

A reflexive verb turns the action back on the subject (“I wash myself”). It needs a reflexive pronoun: me, je, zich, ons, je, zich. Many Dutch verbs are reflexive even when their English equivalent is not (zich voelen, zich vergissen, zich herinneren). Do not confuse reflexive zich (“oneself”) with reciprocal elkaar (“each other”).

The rule

A reflexive verb (wederkerend werkwoord) is used with a reflexive pronoun that refers back to the subject. The pronoun changes per person, but zich is the special form used for the 3rd person (singular and plural) and for the formal u.

Note: me is the normal (unstressed) form; mij is only for emphasis. For all persons except the 3rd person and u, the reflexive pronoun is identical to the object pronoun (me, je, ons). Only the 3rd person and u get the unique word zich.

Forms & patterns

Conjugation of zich wassen (to wash oneself):

Word order — position of the pronoun. The reflexive pronoun behaves like an object pronoun and comes early, right after the finite verb (or after the subject when the subject follows the verb):

Perfect tense. Reflexive verbs always take hebben, and the pronoun stays before the past participle: Ik heb me gewassen. / Hij heeft zich vergist.

zich vs elkaar. Zich = the subjects act on themselves; elkaar (“each other”) = they act on one another. Compare: Ze wassen zich (each washes himself) vs Ze wassen elkaar (they wash one another). Watch the terminology: wederkerend = reflexive (zich), wederkerig = reciprocal (elkaar). Elkaar also has a possessive form elkaars (each other’s): Ze lazen elkaars brieven.

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik voel goed. -> Ik voel me goed. - zich voelen is reflexive in Dutch; the pronoun is obligatory.
• Ik herinner dat niet. -> Ik herinner me dat niet. - zich herinneren always needs the reflexive pronoun.
• Hij wast hem. -> Hij wast zich. - “hem” means someone else; use zich for “himself”.
• Ze ontmoeten zich. -> Ze ontmoeten elkaar. - meeting is mutual, so use the reciprocal elkaar.
• Ik was mij elke dag. -> Ik was me elke dag. - use unstressed me; keep mij only for emphasis/contrast.

Tips

• Remember just one new word: zich. It covers the 3rd person (singular + plural) and u. Every other reflexive pronoun (me, je, ons, je) is identical to the normal object pronoun.
• Many verbs about feelings, mental states and self-action are reflexive in Dutch but not in English: zich voelen, zich vervelen (be bored), zich schamen (be ashamed), zich vergissen (be mistaken), zich herinneren, zich haasten, zich gedragen (behave), zich realiseren.
• Quick test for zich vs elkaar: if you can add “themselves” -> zich; if you can add “each other” -> elkaar.
• All reflexive verbs use hebben in the perfect, and the pronoun stays right after the subject: Ik heb me gehaast.

In short

Many Dutch verbs (proberen, beginnen, hoeven, vergeten, beloven, hopen…) are followed by te + infinitive, and that te-infinitive goes to the end of the clause: Ik probeer te slapen. For purpose (“in order to”) use om … te + infinitive: Ik ga naar de winkel om brood te kopen.

The rule

1. Verb + te + infinitive. A first (finite) verb is conjugated in position 2; the second verb appears as an infinitive with te at the end of the clause. Common verbs that need te:

Note: hoeven te is the negative counterpart of moeten (“must”). It almost always appears with niet / geen / maar / alleen: Je hoeft het niet te doen. (You don’t have to do it.)

2. Separable verbs split around te. With a separable verb (opbellen, meenemen, aankomen…), te slides between the prefix and the verb: op te bellen, mee te nemen, aan te komen. Written as three words.

• Ik probeer hem op te bellen. (opbellen -> op te bellen)
• Vergeet niet je paspoort mee te nemen. (meenemen -> mee te nemen)

3. om … te = “in order to” (purpose). To say why you do something, use om + (rest) + te + infinitive at the end:

• Ik ga naar de winkel om brood te kopen. (… in order to buy bread.)
• Hij belt om een afspraak te maken. (… in order to make an appointment.)

4. te + adjective + om te (too … to …). te before an adjective means “too”; the follow-up clause uses om te:

• De koffie is te heet om te drinken. (too hot to drink)
• Dit is te moeilijk om te begrijpen. (too hard to understand)

5. NO te after modal verbs (kunnen, moeten, willen, mogen, zullen) and after gaan, komen, laten, zien, horen, blijven. These take a bare infinitive -> see lesson 31. Ik wil slapen. / Ik ga koken. (never te).

Forms & patterns

Sentence pattern (verb + te + infinitive)

Purpose pattern (om … te)

Negation: put niet directly before the te-cluster: Ik probeer niet te lachen. / Je hoeft niet te komen.

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik probeer hem te opbellen. -> Ik probeer hem op te bellen. - a separable verb splits around te (prefix + te + verb).
• Ik wil te slapen. / Ik ga te koken. -> Ik wil slapen. / Ik ga koken. - no te after modals or gaan/komen/laten/zien/horen/blijven.
• Ik probeer te slaap. -> Ik probeer te slapen. - use the full infinitive, not the stem.
• Ik ga naar de winkel te kopen brood. -> Ik ga naar de winkel om brood te kopen. - purpose needs om, and the te-infinitive goes to the end.
• Het is te heet te drinken. -> Het is te heet om te drinken. - with te + adjective (“too …”), the follow-up uses om te.
• Ik hoop je snel zien. -> Ik hoop je snel te zien. - don’t drop te with proberen/hopen/beloven/vergeten/beginnen.

Tips

• Memory hook: te = English “to”. Verbs that take English “to + verb” (try TO, hope TO, promise TO, forget TO) take Dutch te: proberen/hopen/beloven/vergeten te.
• The te-infinitive (and the whole om…te clause) always lands at the very end of the clause.
• Separable verb? Slip te into the seam: op | te | bellen, mee | te | nemen, aan | te | komen - three separate words.
• hoeven is just the negative of moeten: Je moet komen (you must come) <-> Je hoeft niet te komen (you don’t have to come).
• If there’s no te in your sentence, check the verb: modals and gaan/komen/laten/zien/horen/blijven take a bare infinitive (lesson 31).

In short

A small group of verbs combines with a bare infinitive - an infinitive with no te - just like the modal verbs from lesson 21. The conjugated verb stays in second position and the infinitive goes to the end of the clause. When two such verbs meet, both infinitives stack at the very end (Ik wil je leren zwemmen).

The rule

Most of these verbs name a way of moving, perceiving, causing or learning an action, and they let a second verb (the infinitive) say what the action is. The pattern is the same as for modals:

Subject + finite verb (position 2) + … + infinitive (at the end).

Verbs that take a bare infinitive (no te):

laten has two everyday meanings:

Two infinitives stack. If the finite verb is itself a modal/infinitive-verb and its partner is one of these verbs, you get two infinitives in a row at the end. The conjugated verb still sits in slot 2:

• Ik wil je leren zwemmen. - I want to teach you to swim.
• Ik laat mijn auto wassen. - I’m having my car washed.
• Je moet hem laten gaan. - You have to let him go.

Forms & patterns

Sentence pattern (one infinitive)

Stacking (two infinitives) - finite verb in slot 2, both infinitives at the end:

In the perfect tense these verbs do not use a past participle: they keep an infinitive (the “replacing infinitive”, IPP). Note that gaan, komen, blijven take zijn:

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ik ga te koken. / Ik laat mijn auto te wassen. -> Ik ga koken / Ik laat mijn auto wassen. - these verbs take a bare infinitive; no te (that is lesson 30’s pattern).
• Ik laat wassen mijn auto. -> Ik laat mijn auto wassen. - the infinitive must stand at the end of the clause.
• Ik heb mijn auto laten gewassen. -> Ik heb mijn auto laten wassen. - in the perfect, the second verb stays an infinitive, not a participle.
• Ik heb gaan zwemmen. -> Ik ben gaan zwemmen. - gaan, komen, blijven form the perfect with zijn.
• Ik wil je zwemmen leren. -> Ik wil je leren zwemmen. - keep the verb cluster together at the end; don’t push one infinitive into the middle.

Tips

• Treat these verbs like the modals: finite verb in slot 2, infinitive(s) at the end, no te. Only hoeven (lesson 21) and the lesson-31 verbs use te.
• laten is your everyday “get/have something done”: Ik laat het repareren (I’ll have it repaired). Same verb also means “let”: Laat maar! (Leave it / Never mind).
• Two infinitives = both go to the end and stay together: leren zwemmen, laten gaan, zien aankomen.
• helpen and leren also allow te (Ik help je met afwassen / Ik leer te zwemmen), but the bare-infinitive version is the most common in speech.
• For longer clusters of three or more verbs (and the exact order inside them), see lesson 47.

In short

Dutch has no separate “-ing” tense. To stress that an action is in progress you use zijn + aan het + infinitive (Ik ben aan het werken = I am working), or a posture verb zitten/staan/liggen/lopen + te + infinitive. The past simply swaps ben/is/zijn for was/waren.

The rule

The plain present tense already covers both “I work” and “I am working” (see lesson 1). Use the duurvorm (continuous form) only when you really want to highlight that something is happening right now / ongoing.

Three main ways:

1. zijn + aan het + infinitive - the neutral, all-purpose option.

   • Ik ben aan het koken. = I am cooking.
   • A direct object comes before aan het: Ik ben de soep aan het proeven. (I am tasting the soup.)
   • The infinitive stays whole, even for separable verbs: Ik ben de tv aan het uitzetten.

2. zitten / staan / liggen / lopen + te + infinitive - same meaning, but adds the real body posture (or, with lopen, often a touch of irritation).

   • Hij zit te lezen. = He is (sitting) reading.
   • Ze staan te wachten. = They are (standing) waiting.

3. bezig zijn (met) - stresses being busy / occupied with a task.

   • Ik ben bezig met de afwas. (+ noun) = I’m busy with the dishes.
   • Ik ben bezig een brief te schrijven. (+ te-infinitive)