In short

To say “X is Y” in Korean you glue an ending onto the noun: 이에요 (ieyo) after a noun that ends in a 받침, 예요 (yeyo) after a noun that ends in a vowel. The negative is a separate word - N + 이/가 아니에요 (anieyo) - and you turn any of these into a question just by raising your voice at the end.

The rule

The Korean equivalent of English “to be (something)” is the copula 이다 (ida). It is not a free word like English “is” - it is a bound ending. It has no life of its own: it is written attached to the preceding noun with no space, exactly like a particle, and the whole thing is pronounced as one chunk.

In this lesson you learn the polite everyday (해요체) forms. Build a sentence in three steps.

• Step 1 - take the noun you want to identify: 학생 (haksaeng, student), 커피 (keopi, coffee).
• Step 2 - look at its LAST syllable. Does it end in a 받침 (a final consonant) or in a vowel? 학생 ends in the 받침 ㅇ; 커피 ends in the vowel ㅣ.
• Step 3 - attach the matching form, with no space. After a 받침 -> 이에요; after a vowel -> 예요. So 학생이에요 and 커피예요.

Schematically: Noun(받침) + 이에요 / Noun(vowel) + 예요.

A ㄹ 받침 is an ordinary 받침 here - there is no special case: 서울 -> 서울이에요 (seourieyo, it’s Seoul).

Pronunciation note: 예요 is very often heard simply as [에요] (eyo) in normal speech, so 커피예요 sounds close to “keopi-eyo”. That is a pronunciation fact only - the spelling stays 예요, and *커피에요 is a misspelling.

The negative: 아니다

이다 is never negated with 안 or -지 않다 (lesson 14). It has its own separate negative word, 아니다 (anida), polite form 아니에요 (anieyo). Two things change:

• 아니에요 is a real word, so it is written with a space after the noun.
• The noun before it takes the subject particle 이 (after a 받침) or 가 (after a vowel).

Schematically: Noun + 이/가 + 아니에요. So 학생 -> 학생이 아니에요 (is not a student), 커피 -> 커피가 아니에요 (is not coffee). In relaxed speech that particle is often dropped, which is why you will hear 제 거 아니에요 (it’s not mine) rather than the fuller 제 것이 아니에요.

Questions

There is no word order change and no extra word: the statement and the question are identical, and only the intonation (and the question mark in writing) differs. 학생이에요. = (You) are a student. -> 학생이에요? = Are you a student?

Two warnings

Do not confuse the copula with 있어요 (isseoyo, from 있다). 이에요/예요 says what something is (identity); 있어요 says that something exists or that you have it - that is lesson 6.

And remember from lesson 1 that Korean drops what is obvious: 학생이에요 on its own is a complete sentence whose subject is whoever the context points to.

Treat 이에요, 예요 and 아니에요 as fixed forms to memorise here. They are 해요체 forms, and the productive rule that generates 해요체 from any stem arrives in lesson 12; the formal 입니다 / 아닙니다 (imnida / animnida) belong to lesson 27. For now, just these three.

Forms & patterns

The copula, chosen by the ending of the noun:

The negative, chosen the same way:

The four sentence types, all from one noun:

Where these forms sit (for orientation only - do not use the right-hand column yet):

Examples

• 저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaengieyo.) - I am a student.
• 이건 커피예요. (Igeon keopiyeyo.) - This is coffee.
• 제 이름은 민수예요. (Je ireumeun Minsuyeyo.) - My name is Minsu.
• 저 사람은 선생님이에요. (Jeo sarameun seonsaengnimieyo.) - That person is a teacher.
• 여기가 우리 집이에요. (Yeogiga uri jibieyo.) - This is our house.
• 오늘은 월요일이에요. (Oneureun woryoirieyo.) - Today is Monday.
• 한국 사람이에요? (Hanguk saramieyo?) - Are you Korean?
• 저는 한국 사람이 아니에요. (Jeoneun Hanguk sarami anieyo.) - I am not Korean.
• 그건 제 거 아니에요. (Geugeon je geo anieyo.) - That one is not mine.
• 이건 물이에요, 커피가 아니에요. (Igeon murieyo, keopiga anieyo.) - This is water, not coffee.

Common mistakes

• 저는 학생 이에요. (Jeoneun haksaeng ieyo.) -> 저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaengieyo.) - 이에요 is an ending, not an English-style “is”: it attaches to the noun with no space.
• 이건 커피이에요. (Igeon keopiieyo.) -> 이건 커피예요. (Igeon keopiyeyo.) - after a vowel-final noun the form is 예요; 이에요 is only for nouns with a 받침.
• 저는 학생예요. (Jeoneun haksaengyeyo.) -> 저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaengieyo.) - the mirror error: 학생 ends in the 받침 ㅇ, so it takes 이에요.
• 저는 학생이 있어요. (Jeoneun haksaengi isseoyo.) -> 저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaengieyo.) - 있어요 means “there is / I have”; for saying what someone is, use 이에요/예요.
• 저는 한국 사람 안 이에요. (Jeoneun Hanguk saram an ieyo.) -> 저는 한국 사람이 아니에요. (Jeoneun Hanguk sarami anieyo.) - 이다 is never negated with 안; it has its own negative 아니다, and the noun in front takes 이/가.

Tips

• One-line memory hook: 받침 -> 이에요, no 받침 -> 예요. The 이 is there to give the ending something to lean on after a consonant, and it disappears after a vowel.
• The two most useful sentences a beginner can own are 이름이 뭐예요? (Ireumi mwoyeyo?, What is your name?) and its answer 저는 …이에요/예요. Note the spelling 뭐예요 - 뭐 ends in a vowel, so 예요, and the common *뭐에요 is simply wrong.
• English keeps “is” as a separate word; Korean does not. If you can hear a pause before 이에요/예요, you are saying it wrong - but 아니에요 really is a separate word, so a small pause there is correct.
• Positive and negative use different glue: the positive attaches (학생이에요), the negative takes a particle plus a space (학생이 아니에요). Drill the pair together so the space never migrates.

In short

이/가 marks the grammatical subject - the noun that does the action or carries the description. 은/는 marks the topic - the thing you have chosen to talk about. Each comes in two shapes, and the shape is decided purely by whether the noun ends in a 받침: 이 and 은 after a 받침, 가 and 는 after a vowel.

The rule

Step 1 - Choose the shape from the 받침, before anything else

Korean particles glue onto the end of a noun with no space. Both of today’s particles are pairs, and picking the wrong half is not a style slip - it is a spelling error that a Korean reader notices instantly.

• Noun ends in a consonant (받침) -> 이, 은. 학생 -> 학생이 (haksaengi), 학생은 (haksaengeun).
• Noun ends in a vowel -> 가, 는. 커피 -> 커피가 (keopiga), 커피는 (keopineun).

ㄹ counts as a 받침 like any other: 물 -> 물이 (muri), 서울 -> 서울은 (Seoureun).

Step 2 - 이/가 = the subject

Noun + 이/가 + Predicate. This is the noun the sentence is about grammatically: the one that acts, exists, or has the quality being described.

• 날씨가 좋아요. (Nalssiga joayo.) - The weather is nice.
• 동생이 학교에 가요. (Dongsaengi hakgyoe gayo.) - My younger sibling goes to school.

Question words in subject position take 이/가, never 은/는 - you cannot make an unknown thing your topic.

Step 3 - 은/는 = what you are talking about

Noun + 은/는 + [the rest of the sentence]. Read it as “as for X…”. It announces the thing under discussion and then says something about it - a self-introduction, a general truth, a heading for the sentence.

• 김치는 매워요. (Gimchineun maewoyo.) - Kimchi is spicy. (kimchi in general, as a subject of discussion)

은/는 is NOT “the subject marker”. English-language materials often mislabel it that way, and it is the single most damaging thing a beginner can believe about Korean. 은/는 says this is the theme; the theme very often happens to also be the subject, which is why the two look interchangeable at first. Sometimes it sits on something that is not the subject at all - see Step 6.

The full 은/는 vs 이/가 contrast is deferred to When 은/는, when 이/가. New information vs old, contrast, exclusive focus, what happens in subordinate clauses - none of that is your job right now. At A1, use the two defaults in Steps 4 and 5 and you will be right most of the time.

Step 4 - The self-introduction frame: 저는 …이에요

Memorise this whole frame as one chunk. It is the highest-frequency sentence you will ever build in Korean:

저는 + [noun] + 이에요/예요.

• 저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaengieyo.) - I am a student.
• 저는 의사예요. (Jeoneun uisayeyo.) - I am a doctor.

The copula is itself an allomorph pair (이에요 after a 받침, 예요 after a vowel - see Saying what something is: 이다 and 아니다), so one short sentence makes you choose correctly twice.

Step 5 - Five fusions you must learn by heart

Two pronouns and one question word do not simply add the particle - they fuse with it. The unfused forms are wrong, not merely unusual.

• 누구 + 가 -> 누가 (nuga) - who (as subject)
• 나 + 가 -> 내가 (naega) - I (casual)
• 저 + 가 -> 제가 (jega) - I (polite)
• 나 + 는 -> 난 (nan) - casual, shortened
• 저 + 는 -> 전 (jeon) - polite, shortened

With 은/는 the full forms 나는 and 저는 are perfectly normal writing; 난 and 전 are just faster spoken contractions. With 이/가 there is no choice at all: 누가, 내가, 제가 are the only forms.

Step 6 - Both particles in one sentence

Because the two do different jobs, one sentence can carry both - a topic first, then a subject inside the comment:

저는 + 이름이 + [name]예요.

• 저는 이름이 지수예요. (Jeoneun ireumi Jisuyeyo.) - My name is Jisu. Literally as for me, the name is Jisu.

Here 저는 is the topic (the person under discussion) and 이름이 is the grammatical subject (the thing that is Jisu). This is proof that 은/는 and 이/가 are not competing labels for one slot. You will meet this pattern properly at When 은/는, when 이/가; for now just recognise it.

Forms & patterns

The subject particle 이/가:

The topic particle 은/는:

ㄹ is a 받침 like any other here. 물 -> 물이 (muri), 서울 -> 서울은 (Seoureun) - no special case, because these particles only ask “consonant or vowel?”. ㄹ becomes special later, with endings that begin with 으: 서울 -> 서울로 (Seoullo), never *서울으로. Do not carry that exception back to 이/가 and 은/는.

The fused forms:

What each particle is doing:

Examples

• 저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaengieyo.) - I am a student.
• 선생님은 한국 사람이에요. (Seonsaengnimeun Hanguk saramieyo.) - The teacher is Korean.
• 커피가 맛있어요. (Keopiga masisseoyo.) - The coffee is delicious.
• 날씨가 좋아요. (Nalssiga joayo.) - The weather is nice.
• 동생이 학교에 가요. (Dongsaengi hakgyoe gayo.) - My younger sibling goes to school.
• 누가 왔어요? (Nuga wasseoyo?) - Who came?
• 제가 지수예요. (Jega Jisuyeyo.) - I am Jisu.
• 저는 이름이 지수예요. (Jeoneun ireumi Jisuyeyo.) - My name is Jisu.
• 김치는 매워요. (Gimchineun maewoyo.) - Kimchi is spicy.
• 물이 차가워요. (Muri chagawoyo.) - The water is cold.

Common mistakes

• 커피이 맛있어요. (Keopii masisseoyo.) -> 커피가 맛있어요. (Keopiga masisseoyo.) - 커피 ends in a vowel, so the subject particle is 가. 이 only ever follows a 받침.
• 선생님는 한국 사람이에요. (Seonsaengnimneun Hanguk saramieyo.) -> 선생님은 한국 사람이에요. (Seonsaengnimeun Hanguk saramieyo.) - 님 has the 받침 ㅁ, so the topic particle is 은. Check the last syllable of the actual word every time.
• 누구가 왔어요? (Nuguga wasseoyo?) -> 누가 왔어요? (Nuga wasseoyo?) - 누구 + 가 fuses to 누가. The unfused form does not exist.
• 저가 학생이에요. (Jeoga haksaengieyo.) -> 제가 학생이에요. (Jega haksaengieyo.) - 저 + 가 fuses to 제가, exactly as 나 + 가 fuses to 내가.
• 저는 학생이 있어요. (Jeoneun haksaengi isseoyo.) -> 저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaengieyo.) - 있어요 means there is / I have; saying what someone is needs the copula 이에요/예요.

Tips

• The sound-based mnemonic. A noun ending in a vowel takes the particle that starts with a consonant (가, 는); a noun ending in a 받침 takes the one that starts with a vowel (이, 은), so the 받침 can slide over into it: 물 + 이 is pronounced [무리] (muri). Korean is avoiding two vowels or two consonants crashing together - that is the whole system.
• Translate 은/는 as “as for”, never as “is”. As for me, student. Awkward English, but it keeps you from treating 은/는 as a subject marker or as part of the verb.
• Learn 저는 …이에요/예요 as one unbreakable chunk. It is your first complete sentence, and it drills both allomorph pairs at once. Say 저는 학생이에요 and 저는 의사예요 out loud until the choice is automatic.
• Do not agonise over 은/는 vs 이/가 yet. At A1 the defaults carry you: 은/는 for introducing yourself and for general statements, 이/가 for the doer and for answering who? or what?. The real contrast is a whole lesson of its own later on.

In short

Korean has two words for “I” and you choose by politeness: 저 (jeo) in 해요체, 나 (na) in 반말. There is no usable everyday word for “you” - you address people by title (선생님 seonsaengnim), by name plus 씨 (민수 씨 Minsu ssi), or by a kinship term, and otherwise you just leave the pronoun out. And “my house” is normally 우리 집 (uri jip), literally “our house”.

The rule

Step 1 - pick the right “I” for your register. The polite set is 저 and the plain set is 나. They are not interchangeable: the pronoun has to match the sentence ending. 저는 학생이에요 (jeoneun haksaengieyo - I am a student) is consistent; *나는 학생이에요 mixes a casual pronoun with a polite ending, and *저는 학생이야 does the reverse. Both read as a mistake.

Step 2 - learn the contracted forms, because they are what you actually say. Both pronouns fuse with the subject particle 가 and with the possessive 의:

• 저 + 가 -> 제가 (jega). Never *저가.
• 저 + 의 -> 제 (je) = “my”. 저의 exists in writing but sounds stiff.
• 나 + 가 -> 내가 (naega). Never *나가 (that is the verb “go out”).
• 나 + 의 -> 내 (nae) = “my”.
• With 은/는 and 을/를 there is no fusion: 저는, 저를 / 나는, 나를 (colloquially shortened to 절, 날).

Step 3 - use 우리 where English uses “my”. With nouns naming something you share with a group - family, home, workplace, school, country - Korean prefers 우리 (uri, “our”): 우리 집 (uri jip - my/our house), 우리 엄마 (uri eomma - my mum), 우리 회사 (uri hoesa - my company), 우리 학교 (uri hakgyo - my school). 제 집 is not ungrammatical, but it sounds oddly proprietary. The humble equivalent, used when you are speaking to a customer or a superior about your own side, is 저희 (jeohui): 저희 회사 (jeohui hoesa - our company). Note the spacing: 우리 집 and 우리 엄마 take a space, but 우리나라 (urinara - our country) is written as one word.

Step 4 - do not say 당신. 당신 (dangsin) is a textbook translation of “you” and a trap. In real speech it is used between spouses, in song lyrics and prayers, or aggressively during an argument. Instead, in order of preference:

1. 직함 + 님 for anyone with a role or rank: 선생님 (seonsaengnim - teacher), 사장님 (sajangnim - company president), 과장님 (gwajangnim - section manager). This is the safest default for a superior.
2. 이름 + 씨 for a peer or a colleague whose name you know: 민수 씨 (Minsu ssi). Attach 씨 to the given name or the full name, never to the family name alone. Never use 씨 upward to a boss or a teacher.
3. Kinship terms, extended to non-relatives: a woman says 언니 (eonni) / 오빠 (oppa) to an older woman / man; a man says 누나 (nuna) / 형 (hyeong). 이모 (imo - aunt) is common for an older woman running a restaurant.
4. Omit it. Korean drops any pronoun the context supplies. 어디에 가요? (Eodie gayo?) already means “where are you going?”.

너 (neo) is the genuine second-person pronoun, but it is 반말 only - for close friends, children and juniors. Its subject form is irregular: 네가 (nega), which almost everyone pronounces and often writes as 니가 (niga) to keep it distinct from 내가. Possessive is 네 (ne), plural 너희 (neohui).

Step 5 - for “he/she”, use a noun phrase. 그 (geu) and 그녀 (geunyeo) are a written-language calque invented to translate European novels. 그녀 in particular is essentially never spoken. Say 그 사람 (geu saram - that person) normally, 그분 (geubun, one word) politely, or just repeat the name or the title.

Step 6 - the plural -들 is optional. -들 (-deul) marks a plural but is not required, and is mostly used with people or with a specific known group: 학생들 (haksaengdeul - the students). Drop it after a number: 학생 세 명 (haksaeng se myeong - three students), not *학생들 세 명.

Forms & patterns

The first-person paradigm - the row you choose is decided by the sentence ending:

Second person - what to say instead of a pronoun:

Third person - written form vs what people actually say:

Examples

• 저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaengieyo.) - I am a student.
• 제 이름은 민수예요. (Je ireumeun Minsuyeyo.) - My name is Minsu.
• 제가 할게요. (Jega halgeyo.) - I’ll do it.
• 우리 집은 서울에 있어요. (Uri jibeun Seoure isseoyo.) - My house is in Seoul.
• 저희 회사는 부산에 있어요. (Jeohui hoesaneun Busane isseoyo.) - Our company is in Busan.
• 선생님, 질문 있어요. (Seonsaengnim, jilmun isseoyo.) - Teacher, I have a question.
• 민수 씨는 회사원이에요? (Minsu ssineun hoesawonieyo?) - Minsu, are you an office worker?
• 그 사람은 제 친구예요. (Geu sarameun je chinguyeyo.) - That person is my friend.
• 그분은 우리 선생님이에요. (Geubuneun uri seonsaengnimieyo.) - That gentleman/lady is our teacher.
• 나는 커피 좋아해. 너는? (Naneun keopi joahae. Neoneun?) - I like coffee. And you? (반말)

Common mistakes

• 저가 할게요. -> 제가 할게요. (Jega halgeyo.) - 저 does not simply take 가; 저 + 가 contracts to 제가. The same holds for 나 + 가 -> 내가.
• 나는 김민수예요. -> 저는 김민수예요. (Jeoneun Gim Minsuyeyo.) - the pronoun must match the ending. 나 belongs with 반말 (나는 김민수야), 저 with 해요체.
• 당신은 어디에 가요? -> 민수 씨는 어디에 가요? (Minsu ssineun eodie gayo?) - 당신 is not a neutral “you”. Use name + 씨, a title + 님, or drop the pronoun entirely.
• 그녀는 제 친구예요. -> 그 사람은 제 친구예요. (Geu sarameun je chinguyeyo.) - 그녀 is a written-language form. In speech say 그 사람 or, politely, 그분.
• 제 집은 서울에 있어요. -> 우리 집은 서울에 있어요. (Uri jibeun Seoure isseoyo.) - for home, family, school and workplace Korean says 우리, even when only one person is meant.

Tips

• Two things move together: 저 / 제가 / 저희 go with -요 endings, 나 / 내가 / 우리 go with 반말. If you catch yourself saying 저 in one sentence and 내가 in the next, one of them is wrong.
• 저희 is humble, so it excludes the listener. Speaking to your own team you say 우리; speaking to a client about your team you say 저희. One fixed exception: your own country is always 우리나라 (urinara), never 저희 나라 - it is odd to be humble about a nation.
• A useful reflex: when in doubt, drop the pronoun. Korean sentences with no subject at all are completely normal, and omission can never be rude - whereas guessing at a form of address can.
• Two look-alikes worth knowing early. 자기 (jagi) is “oneself” in writing, but in conversation it is what couples call each other (“honey”) - do not use it as a general “you”. 본인 (bonin - the person in question, oneself) is formal and appears on forms and in official speech.

In short

Korean splits “this/that” three ways: 이 (i) near me, 그 (geu) near you or already mentioned, 저 (jeo) far from both of us. Those three syllables then combine with a fixed set of endings to give you things (이것), places (여기), directions (이쪽), kinds (이런) and manner (이렇게) - learn one row and you get three words for free.

The rule

English has two demonstratives, “this” and “that”. Korean has three, and the middle one is the one English speakers miss.

Step 1 - choose the syllable (distance).

• 이 (i) - near the speaker: in my hand, on my desk, right here.
• 그 (geu) - near the listener, or something already talked about.
• 저 (jeo) - far from both of us: across the street, out the window.

저 is only for things physically distant from both speakers and visible. If you cannot point at it, it is not 저. This is the trap: English “that” covers both 그 and 저, so learners reach for 저 for everything that is not in their own hand.

Step 2 - the anaphoric 그. Distance also applies to the conversation itself. Anything already mentioned - a plan, a shop, a person’s name you just heard - is 그, never 저: 그 영화 (geu yeonghwa) “that film we’re talking about”. This discourse use is far more frequent in real speech than the pointing use, and it is why 그 is the workhorse of the whole family.

Step 3 - choose the ending (what kind of word you need).

• 이/그/저 + Noun - a determiner. It is a separate word and always takes a space: 이 사람 (i saram) “this person”, 그 책 (geu chaek) “that book”.
• 이것/그것/저것 (igeot / geugeot / jeogeot) - “this thing”; written as one word, no space. This is the careful, written form.
• 여기/거기/저기 (yeogi / geogi / jeogi) - places. Note that these are irregular: not *이기, not *그기.
• 이쪽/그쪽/저쪽 (ijjok / geujjok / jeojjok) - directions, “this way”; also a polite way to point at a person.
• 이런/그런/저런 + Noun (ireon / geureon / jeoreon) - “this kind of”; like the determiner, it needs a noun after it.
• 이렇게/그렇게/저렇게 (ireoke / geureoke / jeoreoke) - manner, “like this / that way”; an adverb, so it attaches to a verb.

The manner words come from the descriptive verbs 이렇다/그렇다/저렇다, which are ㅎ-irregular: 그렇다 -> 그래요 (geureota -> geuraeyo) “that’s right / it’s like that”. You will meet 그래요 constantly.

Step 4 - the spoken forms and their contractions. In speech nobody says 이것 - they say 이거 (igeo). And when a particle attaches, the whole thing contracts. These contractions are not slang; they are what you will actually hear and should use:

• 이것이 -> 이게 (ige), 이것은 -> 이건 (igeon), 이것을 -> 이걸 (igeol).

Note that 것 ends in a 받침, so it selects the consonant-side allomorph every time: 것이, 것은, 것을 - never *것가, *것는, *것를.

Step 5 - the question counterparts. Every row has a question word, and three of them are easy to confuse:

• 어느 + Noun (eoneu) - “which one of a known set”: 어느 나라 (which country).
• 무슨 + Noun (museun) - “what kind of / what”: 무슨 색 (what colour).
• 어떤 + Noun (eotteon) - “what sort of, what is it like”: 어떤 사람 (what sort of person).

All three are determiners and need a noun. Standing alone you want 어디 (eodi, where), 뭐 (mwo, what) or 어떻게 (eotteoke, how).

Forms & patterns

The grid. Read across for one distance, down for one word type:

The contractions. 것 ends in a 받침, so the consonant-side allomorph is always the one that contracts:

Spacing - the single rule that decides it:

Examples

• 이건 제 책이에요. (Igeon je chaegieyo.) - This is my book.
• 그건 뭐예요? (Geugeon mwoyeyo?) - What is that (there by you)?
• 저건 우체국이에요. (Jeogeon uchegugieyo.) - That over there is a post office.
• 이 사람은 제 친구예요. (I sarameun je chinguyeyo.) - This person is my friend.
• 여기는 우리 집이에요. (Yeogineun uri jibieyo.) - This place is our house.
• 화장실이 어디예요? (Hwajangsiri eodiyeyo?) - Where is the bathroom?
• 이쪽으로 오세요. (Ijjogeuro oseyo.) - Come this way.
• 저는 그렇게 생각해요. (Jeoneun geureoke saenggakaeyo.) - I think so.
• 이런 옷을 좋아해요. (Ireon oseul joahaeyo.) - I like this kind of clothes.
• 어느 나라 사람이에요? (Eoneu nara saramieyo?) - Which country are you from?

Common mistakes

• 이것 사람은 제 친구예요. (Igeot sarameun je chinguyeyo.) -> 이 사람은 제 친구예요. (I sarameun je chinguyeyo.) - 이것 already means “this thing” and is a complete noun phrase, so it cannot modify another noun. Before a noun you need the bare determiner 이.
• 그것는 뭐예요? (Geugeotneun mwoyeyo?) -> 그것은 뭐예요? (Geugeoseun mwoyeyo?) - 것 ends in the 받침 ㅅ, so the topic particle is 은, never 는. Same for 것이 (not *것가) and 것을 (not *것를).
• 저 것은 얼마예요? (Jeo geoseun eolmayeyo?) -> 저것은 얼마예요? (Jeogeoseun eolmayeyo?) - 이/그/저 fuse with 것 into a single written word. The space is only correct when a real noun follows, as in 저 가방 (jeo gabang).
• 저 영화 재미있어요? (Jeo yeonghwa jaemiisseoyo?) said about a film the other person just mentioned -> 그 영화 재미있어요? (Geu yeonghwa jaemiisseoyo?) - 저 is only for something visible and far from both of you. Anything that exists in the conversation rather than in the room is 그.
• 어디 나라 사람이에요? (Eodi nara saramieyo?) -> 어느 나라 사람이에요? (Eoneu nara saramieyo?) - 어디 is a standalone pronoun meaning “where”. To ask “which X” in front of a noun you need the determiner 어느.

Tips

• Three, not two. The test for 그 is not “is it far from me” but “is it near my listener, or did we just talk about it?” If either is true, use 그. Save 저 for things you can physically point at across a distance.
• 그 is the one you will use most. Because it covers everything already mentioned, 그, 그거, 그런, 그렇게 and 그래요 run through ordinary conversation constantly, while 저것 stays fairly rare.
• Spacing mnemonic: a determiner is a word, a pronoun is a lump. 이 sits alone in front of a noun (이 사람), but glues onto 것 (이것). If you can replace it with “this ___”, it is spaced; if it means “this thing”, it is one word.
• Speak the contractions. Saying 이것은 out loud sounds like reading a textbook. 이건, 그건, 이게, 그게, 이걸, 그걸 are the normal spoken shapes and are perfectly correct in writing too.

In short

Korean has no verb “to have”. One pair of words - 있어요 (isseoyo) and 없어요 (eopseoyo) - covers there is / there isn’t, is located / isn’t located, and has / doesn’t have. Learn them now as two fixed chunks; the conjugation machinery behind them arrives in the 해요체 lesson.

The rule

Step 1 - Two words, not one word plus a negative

The dictionary forms are 있다 (itda, to exist / to be somewhere / to have) and 없다 (eopda, to not exist / to not be somewhere / to not have). 없다 is a separate word, not 있다 with a negative attached. This matters immediately: you never say *안 있어요. The negative of 있어요 is simply 없어요.

Watch the 받침. 있다 has double ㅆ and 없다 has the cluster ㅄ - 잇다 and 업다 are different words entirely.

For now, take 있어요 / 없어요 as unanalysed chunks. In 해요체 they also serve as questions with nothing but rising intonation: 있어요? (isseoyo?) - is there? / do you have?

Step 2 - Existence: what takes 이/가

The plain existence pattern is Noun + 이/가 + 있어요/없어요.

• 시간이 있어요? (Sigani isseoyo?) - Is there time? / Do you have time?

The thing whose existence is in question is the grammatical subject, so it takes 이/가 - and the choice is decided by the 받침 of that noun, not by meaning: 시간 ends in ㄴ, so 시간이; 차 ends in a vowel, so 차가.

Step 3 - Location: the place takes 에

Add a place and you get Noun + 이/가 + Place + 에 + 있어요/없어요. Korean is verb-final, so 있어요 stays at the end and the place sits in front of it.

• 저는 학교에 있어요. (Jeoneun hakgyoe isseoyo.) - I am at school.

The particle here is 에, the static-location particle. 에서 marks where an action happens, so it cannot appear with 있다 - see 에, 에서 and (으)로. Note also that the located thing may be raised to a topic with 은/는 (저는), exactly as in lesson 3.

Step 4 - Possession: “to me, X exists”

Korean expresses have as existence attached to a person. Two frames do the job:

• Person + 은/는 + Noun + 이/가 + 있어요/없어요 - the everyday one: 저는 차가 없어요. (Jeoneun chaga eopseoyo.) - I don’t have a car.
• Person + 한테/에게 + Noun + 이/가 + 있어요/없어요 - literally to that person there exists: 저한테 우산이 있어요. (Jeohante usani isseoyo.) - I have an umbrella.

한테 is the spoken form and 에게 the written one; they are otherwise interchangeable here, and their fuller life as dative particles is lesson 20.

Step 5 - Position nouns are nouns, and they take a space

Korean has no prepositions. On, in, behind are ordinary nouns of position that follow the reference noun and then carry 에:

Reference noun + [space] + position noun + 에

• 책상 위에 (chaeksang wie) - on the desk, literally at the desk’s top.

Because 위, 안, 앞 and the rest are full nouns, 띄어쓰기 puts a space before them: 책상 위에, never *책상위에.

Step 6 - Two things to file away for later

있다/없다 are their own predicate class - neither action verbs nor descriptive verbs. Nothing changes for you today, but it decides their modifier form later: they take -는 (있는 inneun, 없는 eomneun), never -(으)ㄴ - see lesson 24.

And when the person located deserves respect, 있다 is replaced by the honorific verb 계시다 (gyesida): 아버지가 방에 계세요. (Abeojiga bange gyeseyo.) - Father is in the room. Full treatment in lesson 22; until then, use it only of other people, never of yourself.

Forms & patterns

The three uses, as templates:

Which subject particle, decided by the 받침:

Forms to recognise now, drill later:

Position nouns - the core set:

Examples

• 시간이 있어요? (Sigani isseoyo?) - Do you have time?
• 오늘은 시간이 없어요. (Oneureun sigani eopseoyo.) - Today I don’t have time.
• 저는 지금 학교에 있어요. (Jeoneun jigeum hakgyoe isseoyo.) - I am at school right now.
• 친구가 집에 없어요. (Chinguga jibe eopseoyo.) - My friend isn’t at home.
• 고양이가 의자 위에 있어요. (Goyangiga uija wie isseoyo.) - The cat is on the chair.
• 은행이 학교 앞에 있어요. (Eunhaengi hakgyo ape isseoyo.) - The bank is in front of the school.
• 저는 차가 없어요. (Jeoneun chaga eopseoyo.) - I don’t have a car.
• 저한테 우산이 있어요. (Jeohante usani isseoyo.) - I have an umbrella.
• 가방 안에 지갑이 있어요. (Gabang ane jigabi isseoyo.) - There is a wallet in the bag.
• 집 근처에 편의점이 있어요. (Jip geuncheoe pyeonuijeomi isseoyo.) - There is a convenience store near my house.

Common mistakes

• 저는 학생이 있어요. (Jeoneun haksaengi isseoyo.) -> 저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaengieyo.) - 있어요 says something exists; saying what something is needs the copula 이에요/예요.
• 저는 차가 안 있어요. (Jeoneun chaga an isseoyo.) -> 저는 차가 없어요. (Jeoneun chaga eopseoyo.) - 있다 is never negated with 안. Its negative is the separate word 없다.
• 지갑가 가방 안에 있어요. (Jigapga gabang ane isseoyo.) -> 지갑이 가방 안에 있어요. (Jigabi gabang ane isseoyo.) - 지갑 ends in the 받침 ㅂ, so the subject particle must be 이, not 가.
• 저는 학교에서 있어요. (Jeoneun hakgyoeseo isseoyo.) -> 저는 학교에 있어요. (Jeoneun hakgyoe isseoyo.) - 에서 marks where an action takes place; simply being somewhere takes 에.
• 책상위에 있어요. (Chaeksangwie isseoyo.) -> 책상 위에 있어요. (Chaeksang wie isseoyo.) - 위 is a noun, not a suffix, so 띄어쓰기 requires the space.

Tips

• Ask which of the three meanings you need. 있어요 is exists, is located, and has all at once. English forces you to pick a verb; Korean does not, and the frame around 있어요 (bare noun, place + 에, person + 은/는) already tells the listener which one you mean.
• Memorise the pair, not the word. 있어요/없어요 always come as a set, and the negative is a different word. Drill them together out loud and *안 있어요 will never occur to you.
• They hide inside common adjectives. 재미있어요 (jaemiisseoyo, it’s fun) / 재미없어요 (jaemieopseoyo, it’s boring) and 맛있어요 (masisseoyo, it’s tasty) / 맛없어요 (madeopseoyo, it tastes bad) are built on this pair - note that 맛없어요 is pronounced with a linking ㄷ, not an ㅅ.
• Never use 계세요 of yourself. *저는 집에 계세요 is wrong: honorifics point at someone else. About yourself it is always 저는 집에 있어요.

In short

To ask a question in Korean you change almost nothing: keep the sentence exactly as it is and drop the question word into the slot where the answer would go. 이게 뭐예요? (Ige mwoyeyo?) “What is this?” has the same shape as the statement that answers it. For yes/no questions in 해요체 you change nothing at all - you just raise your voice at the end.

The rule

Step 1 - The question word sits in the answer’s slot

English moves question words to the front: “You are eating what?” becomes “What are you eating?” Korean does no such thing. The sentence keeps its normal verb-final order and the question word simply occupies the position of the missing information.

• 어디 가요? (Eodi gayo?) - Where are you going? -> answer 학교 가요. (Hakgyo gayo.) I’m going to school.
• 어디 stands exactly where 학교 stands. Nothing moved.

So the procedure for building any question word question is: write the answer, then swap the unknown part for a question word. That single habit removes most beginner word-order errors.

Step 2 - Yes/no questions are intonation only

In 해요체 the statement and the yes/no question are the same words with the same ending. Only the pitch differs - falling for a statement, rising for a question - and in writing only the question mark differs.

• 커피 좋아해요. (Keopi joahaeyo.) - You like coffee.
• 커피 좋아해요? (Keopi joahaeyo?) - Do you like coffee?

There is no Korean equivalent of “do”-support, no auxiliary, no inversion. (The formal question ending -습니까? exists, but it belongs to 합쇼체 and arrives at The formal deferential style 합쇼체. Do not mix it into 해요체 sentences.)

Step 3 - Answering: 네 and 아니요

네 (ne) is “yes” and 아니요 (aniyo) is “no”, but 네 is better understood as “that’s right” - it agrees with the proposition you were just handed rather than with the English polarity. 네 also works as “I’m listening”, “here you go” and “pardon?”, which is why you hear it constantly.

Step 4 - Question words take 이/가, never 은/는

An unknown thing cannot be your topic - you cannot announce “as for what…” So a question word in subject position must carry the subject particle 이/가, and the answer that fills the gap carries it too:

• 누가 왔어요? (Nuga wasseoyo?) - Who came? -> 제가 왔어요. (Jega wasseoyo.) I did.

Note the fusion: 누구 + 가 -> 누가, not *누구가. Learn 누가 as its own word, the subject form of 누구. The same applies to 뭐: 뭐가 좋아요? (Mwoga joayo?) Which one is good?

Answering 저는 왔어요 here would be wrong - 은/는 announces a topic, but the questioner asked for brand-new information, so 제가 is the only correct answer.

Step 5 - Some question words need a noun after them

무슨, 어느 and 어떤 are determiners: they modify a following noun and cannot stand alone. They are spaced from that noun.

• 무슨 + Noun - what / what kind of, out of an open field.
• 어느 + Noun - which one, out of a known set.
• 어떤 + Noun - what sort of, what is it like.

몇 (myeot) is the same kind of word: it needs a counter after it - 몇 시 (myeot si) “what time”, 몇 개 (myeot gae) “how many items” - and is always spaced. Contrast 얼마 (eolma), which stands alone and asks price or quantity. Full coverage of counters is in Two number systems, counters, time and dates; the determiner family is mapped in Demonstratives 이/그/저 and place words.

Step 6 - The same words also mean “someone / something / sometime”

Korean question words are indefinite pronouns too. The words do not change; the intonation does, and so does the particle.

• 누구 있어요? (Nugu isseoyo?) - Is anyone there? (not “who is there?”)
• 뭐 좀 먹었어요? (Mwo jom meogeosseoyo?) - Did you eat something?
• 어디 갔어요? (Eodi gasseoyo?) - with the stress on 어디 this is where did you go?, but said flatly it is did you go somewhere?

The tell is the particle: a real question word in subject position takes 이/가 (누가 있어요? Who is there?), while the indefinite reading leaves it bare or takes 은/는.

Forms & patterns

The core inventory. These ten cover almost everything you need at A1:

How 누구 and 뭐 behave with particles. Both end in a vowel, so they select the vowel-side allomorph every time:

The determiners - each one needs a noun, spaced:

Answering yes and no:

Examples

• 이게 뭐예요? (Ige mwoyeyo?) - What is this?
• 여기가 어디예요? (Yeogiga eodiyeyo?) - Where is this place?
• 지금 몇 시예요? (Jigeum myeot siyeyo?) - What time is it now?
• 누가 왔어요? (Nuga wasseoyo?) - Who came?
• 생일이 언제예요? (Saengiri eonjeyeyo?) - When is your birthday?
• 왜 늦었어요? (Wae neujeosseoyo?) - Why are you late?
• 어떻게 알아요? (Eotteoke arayo?) - How do you know?
• 이거 얼마예요? (Igeo eolmayeyo?) - How much is this?
• 커피 좋아해요? (Keopi joahaeyo?) - Do you like coffee?
• 누구 있어요? (Nugu isseoyo?) - Is anyone there?

Common mistakes

• 누구가 왔어요? (Nuguga wasseoyo?) -> 누가 왔어요? (Nuga wasseoyo?) - 누구 plus the subject particle fuses into the single word 누가. The uncontracted form does not exist.
• 누가 왔어요? - 저는 왔어요. (Jeoneun wasseoyo.) -> 제가 왔어요. (Jega wasseoyo.) - the answer to a 누가 question is the new information the questioner asked for, so it takes 이/가. 은/는 would announce a topic instead of answering.
• 뭐는 맛있어요? (Mwoneun masisseoyo?) -> 뭐가 맛있어요? (Mwoga masisseoyo?) - question words cannot carry 은/는 at all. You cannot make an unknown into the thing you are talking about.
• 뭐해요? (Mwohaeyo?) -> 뭐 해요? (Mwo haeyo?) - 뭐 is an independent pronoun, not a prefix, so it is spaced from the verb. Compare 공부해요, which really is one word.
• 어떻게 사람이에요? (Eotteoke saramieyo?) -> 어떤 사람이에요? (Eotteon saramieyo?) - 어떻게 is an adverb (“by what means”) and attaches to a verb. In front of a noun you need the determiner 어떤.

Tips

• Write the answer first, then swap. Because nothing moves, you can build any question by writing the full statement and replacing the unknown word. This is the fastest way to stop producing English word order in Korean.
• 네 agrees, it does not mean “yes”. If someone asks a negative question - “you’re not going?” - Korean 네 means that’s right, I’m not going, exactly where English would say “no”. Answer the proposition, not the polarity.
• 얼마 is money, 몇 is countable. 얼마 stands alone and asks price or amount (얼마예요?); 몇 is a determiner and must be glued to a counter with a space (몇 시, 몇 개, 몇 사람). Writing *몇시 is a spacing error.
• 뭐 and 무엇 are the same word in two registers. Say 뭐 in conversation and write 무엇 in formal or written Korean. A learner who says 무엇이에요 out loud sounds like a textbook; a learner who writes 뭐 in an exam essay sounds too casual.

In short

을/를 marks the direct object - the thing the action is done to - and it glues onto the noun with no space: 을 after a 받침, 를 after a vowel. The catch for English speakers is that Korean and English disagree about which verbs even take an object, so you have to learn the particle together with the verb.

The rule

Step 1 - Choose the shape from the 받침

Exactly the same mechanism as 이/가 and 은/는. Look at the last syllable of the noun, not at the word’s meaning:

• Noun ends in a consonant (받침) -> 을. 책 -> 책을 (chaegeul, a book), 밥 -> 밥을 (babeul, a meal).
• Noun ends in a vowel -> 를. 사과 -> 사과를 (sagwareul, an apple), 커피 -> 커피를 (keopireul, coffee).

ㄹ is a 받침 like any other, so it takes 을: 물 -> 물을 (mureul, water), 서울 -> 서울을 (Seoureul, Seoul). Writing *사과을 or *책를 is a spelling error, not a variant.

Step 2 - Where the object sits

Noun + 을/를 + Verb. The object comes before the verb, and the verb still closes the sentence:

• 저는 사과를 먹어요. (Jeoneun sagwareul meogeoyo.) - I eat an apple.

Because the particle carries the role, the object can be moved for emphasis without becoming the subject - but at A1 keep the neutral order.

Step 3 - Verbs whose case frame will surprise you

This is the real work of this lesson. English marks these roles with a preposition; Korean simply calls them the object and puts 을/를 on them. Learn each verb with its particle, as one unit.

• 친구를 만나요. (Chingureul mannayo.) - [I] meet a friend. English says meet with, Korean does not.
• 버스를 타요. (Beoseureul tayo.) - [I] take the bus. English says get on, so learners reach for 에. Wrong: 타다 takes 을/를.
• 학교를 다녀요. (Hakgyoreul danyeoyo.) - [I] attend school. English says go to.

Step 4 - 좋아하다 vs 좋다, and 이/가 되다

Two traps that look like one another but pull in opposite directions.

좋아하다 (to like) and 싫어하다 (to dislike) are action verbs, so what you like is the object: 커피를 좋아해요. But 좋다 and 싫다 are descriptive verbs meaning roughly is likeable / is disagreeable, so the thing takes 이/가: 커피가 좋아요. Same English translation, opposite particle.

되다 (to become) goes the other way. English says become a teacher and learners write *선생님을 됐어요; Korean marks the result with 이/가: 선생님이 됐어요.

잘하다 (to be good at) and 못하다 (to be bad at) behave like normal transitive verbs despite the English at: 한국어를 잘해요, 요리를 못해요. Note the spacing - 못하다 written solid means to be bad at, while 못 하다 with a space means cannot do it.

Step 5 - 를 contracts to ㄹ in speech

In conversation and casual writing, 를 collapses onto the previous syllable as a final ㄹ. These are normal, not sloppy:

• 무엇을 / 뭐를 -> 뭘 (mwol). 뭘 마셔요? (Mwol masyeoyo?) - What are you drinking?
• 이것을 -> 이걸 (igeol), 그것을 -> 그걸 (geugeol)
• 저를 -> 절 (jeol), 나를 -> 날 (nal)

Use the full forms in formal writing; recognise the short ones everywhere else.

Step 6 - Dropping the particle

When the role is obvious, everyday speech simply omits 을/를:

• 밥 먹었어요? (Bap meogeosseoyo?) - Have you eaten?
• 물 주세요. (Mul juseyo.) - Water, please.

This is a spoken-register habit, not a licence to drop particles in writing. Keep them in until your ear is reliable.

Step 7 - 하다 compounds can split

공부하다 is one word, but the noun inside it can be pulled out and marked as a real object: 공부를 해요. The split version puts a little weight on the noun (it’s studying that I’m doing). The solid form is the default. Full treatment at 하다 verbs and the noun + 하다 pattern.

Forms & patterns

The allomorph table:

Spoken contractions of 를:

Which particle each verb demands:

하다 compounds, solid vs split:

Examples

• 저는 사과를 먹어요. (Jeoneun sagwareul meogeoyo.) - I eat an apple.
• 책을 읽어요. (Chaegeul ilgeoyo.) - [I] read a book.
• 친구를 만나요. (Chingureul mannayo.) - [I] meet a friend.
• 매일 버스를 타요. (Maeil beoseureul tayo.) - [I] take the bus every day.
• 저는 대학교를 다녀요. (Jeoneun daehakgyoreul danyeoyo.) - I attend university.
• 저는 커피를 좋아해요. (Jeoneun keopireul joahaeyo.) - I like coffee.
• 동생은 요리를 잘해요. (Dongsaengeun yorireul jalhaeyo.) - My younger sibling is good at cooking.
• 친구가 선생님이 됐어요. (Chinguga seonsaengnimi dwaesseoyo.) - My friend became a teacher.
• 뭘 마셔요? (Mwol masyeoyo?) - What are you drinking?
• 밥 먹었어요? (Bap meogeosseoyo?) - Have you eaten?

Common mistakes

• 사과을 먹어요. (Sagwa-eul meogeoyo.) -> 사과를 먹어요. (Sagwareul meogeoyo.) - 사과 ends in a vowel, so the object particle is 를. 을 only ever follows a 받침.
• 저는 김치가 좋아해요. (Jeoneun gimchiga joahaeyo.) -> 저는 김치를 좋아해요. (Jeoneun gimchireul joahaeyo.) - 좋아하다 is an action verb and takes an object. Only the descriptive 좋다 takes 이/가: 김치가 좋아요.
• 버스에 타요. (Beoseu-e tayo.) -> 버스를 타요. (Beoseureul tayo.) - English get on the bus pulls learners toward 에, but 타다 is transitive in Korean.
• 저는 선생님을 됐어요. (Jeoneun seonsaengnimeul dwaesseoyo.) -> 저는 선생님이 됐어요. (Jeoneun seonsaengnimi dwaesseoyo.) - 되다 never takes 을/를. The thing you turn into is marked with 이/가.
• 한국어를 공부를 해요. (Hangugeoreul gongbureul haeyo.) -> 한국어를 공부해요. (Hangugeoreul gongbuhaeyo.) - one clause, one object. If 한국어를 is already there, 공부하다 stays solid.

Tips

• Learn the particle as part of the verb, like a German verb’s case. Store it as 친구를 만나다, 버스를 타다, 선생님이 되다 - never as bare 만나다, 타다, 되다. The English translation will lie to you about which particle to use; the memorised chunk will not.
• 좋아하다 has 하다 in it, and 하다 verbs take objects. That one observation resolves the 좋다/좋아하다 split for good: 하다 -> action -> 을/를; plain 좋다 -> description -> 이/가.
• ㄹ is a consonant. Learners see 물 or 서울 ending in a “soft” sound and reach for 를. Both take 을: 물을, 서울을.
• Hear the contractions before you use them. 뭘, 이걸 and 절 make you sound natural in speech but out of place in an email or an exam answer, where 무엇을, 이것을 and 저를 belong.

In short

에 marks a still point - where something is (with 있다/없다), where you are going, and when something happens. 에서 marks the place an action happens, and the place you came from. (으)로 marks the direction you head in, and the means or material you do something with.

The rule

Korean does not use prepositions. There is no word for at, to, in or by - the information is glued to the end of the noun as a particle, with no space. Which particle you pick depends on what the verb is doing, so read the verb first.

Step 1 - 에 = a point, not an activity

Noun + 에. 에 never changes shape - it attaches identically after a vowel or a 받침. It has three A1 jobs.

(a) Static location, with 있다 and 없다 only.

• 집에 있어요. (Jibe isseoyo.) - I am at home.
• 화장실이 저기에 있어요. (Hwajangsiri jeogie isseoyo.) - The bathroom is over there.

(b) The goal of movement, with 가다, 오다, 도착하다.

• 학교에 가요. (Hakgyoe gayo.) - I go to school.

(c) A point in time.

• 세 시에 만나요. (Se sie mannayo.) - Let’s meet at three.

The time use has one trap: 에 attaches to clock and calendar words - 세 시에 (se sie, at three), 월요일에 (woryoire, on Monday), 아침에 (achime, in the morning) - but never to 오늘 (oneul, today), 어제 (eoje, yesterday), 내일 (naeil, tomorrow), 지금 (jigeum, now) or 매일 (maeil, every day). Those stand bare: 오늘 만나요, not *오늘에 만나요.

Step 2 - 에서 = the stage the action plays on

Noun + 에서. If a real activity happens at the place - eating, studying, working, meeting, buying - the place takes 에서, not 에.

• 집에서 공부해요. (Jibeseo gongbuhaeyo.) - I study at home.

Same particle, second job: origin, the place something came from.

• 한국에서 왔어요. (Hangugeseo wasseoyo.) - I came from Korea.

Step 3 - The 에 vs 에서 decision, in one question

Ask: is a verb of activity happening at this place?

• Yes -> 에서. 도서관에서 공부해요.
• No - the sentence only says something exists there, or moves there -> 에. 도서관에 가요.

Two verbs break the pattern in a way worth memorising: 있다/없다 always take 에 (a state, not an activity), and 살다 (salda, to live) also normally takes 에: 서울에 살아요 (Seoure sarayo.) - I live in Seoul.

Step 4 - (으)로: pick the shape from the 받침

This one is an allomorph pair, and its rule has a famous exception: ㄹ behaves like a vowel.

• Noun ends in a vowel -> 로. 학교 -> 학교로 (hakgyoro).
• Noun ends in ㄹ -> 로 as well. 서울 -> 서울로 (Seoullo), 지하철 -> 지하철로 (jihacheollo).
• Noun ends in any other 받침 -> 으로. 집 -> 집으로 (jibeuro).

*서울으로 and *학교으로 are both wrong. ㄹ is the only 받침 that takes the short form.

Step 5 - What (으)로 means

Three uses, all of them “the route the action travels along”:

• Direction - which way you head: 오른쪽으로 가요 (Oreunjjogeuro gayo.) - Go to the right.
• Means or instrument - how you do it: 버스로 가요 (beoseuro), 연필로 써요 (yeonpillo), 한국어로 말해요 (Hangugeoro).
• Material - what it is made of: 나무로 만들어요 (namuro).

Step 6 - 에 vs (으)로 for a destination

Both can point at a place you are going, but they say different things. 에 names the endpoint you will arrive at; (으)로 names the direction you set off in.

• 학교에 가요. (Hakgyoe gayo.) - I am going to school. (school is where I end up)
• 학교로 가요. (Hakgyoro gayo.) - I am heading toward school. (that is the way I am going)

With plain 가다/오다 at A1, 에 is the safe default. Use (으)로 when the point really is the direction: 이쪽으로 (ijjogeuro, this way), 위로 (wiro, upward).

Step 7 - Stacking other particles on top

에, 에서 and (으)로 keep their place and let 도 (too), 만 (only) and 는 attach after them:

• 집에서도 공부해요. (Jibeseodo gongbuhaeyo.) - I study at home too.
• 집으로만 가요. (Jibeuroman gayo.) - I only go home.

The order is fixed: Noun + place particle + 도/만. *집도에서 is wrong.

Forms & patterns

에 vs 에서 - minimal pairs on the same noun:

The jobs of each particle:

(으)로 - the allomorph table:

What (으)로 is doing:

Examples

• 저는 지금 집에 있어요. (Jeoneun jigeum jibe isseoyo.) - I am at home right now.
• 동생은 학교에 없어요. (Dongsaengeun hakgyoe eopseoyo.) - My younger sibling is not at school.
• 월요일에 도서관에 가요. (Woryoire doseogwane gayo.) - On Monday I go to the library.
• 비행기가 세 시에 공항에 도착해요. (Bihaenggiga se sie gonghange dochakaeyo.) - The plane arrives at the airport at three o’clock.
• 카페에서 커피를 마셔요. (Kapeeseo keopireul masyeoyo.) - I drink coffee at the cafe.
• 친구를 공원에서 만나요. (Chingureul gongwoneseo mannayo.) - I meet my friend at the park.
• 저는 한국에서 왔어요. (Jeoneun Hangugeseo wasseoyo.) - I am from Korea.
• 버스로 회사에 가요. (Beoseuro hoesae gayo.) - I go to work by bus.
• 여기에서 오른쪽으로 가요. (Yeogieseo oreunjjogeuro gayo.) - From here, go to the right.
• 집에서도 한국어를 공부해요. (Jibeseodo Hangugeoreul gongbuhaeyo.) - I study Korean at home too.

Common mistakes

• 집에서 있어요. (Jibeseo isseoyo.) -> 집에 있어요. (Jibe isseoyo.) - 있다 and 없다 describe a state, not an action, so their place always takes 에. This is the single most common 에/에서 error.
• 학교에 공부해요. (Hakgyoe gongbuhaeyo.) -> 학교에서 공부해요. (Hakgyoeseo gongbuhaeyo.) - An activity is happening at the school, so the place needs 에서. 학교에 가요 is right because 가다 is movement to a goal.
• 학교으로 가요. (Hakgyoeuro gayo.) -> 학교로 가요. (Hakgyoro gayo.) - 학교 ends in a vowel, so the short form 로 attaches. 으로 only follows a 받침.
• 서울으로 가요. (Seoureuro gayo.) -> 서울로 가요. (Seoullo gayo.) - ㄹ is the exception among 받침: it takes 로, exactly like a vowel. Same for 지하철로, 연필로.
• 오늘에 친구를 만나요. (Oneure chingureul mannayo.) -> 오늘 친구를 만나요. (Oneul chingureul mannayo.) - 오늘, 어제, 내일, 지금 and 매일 take no particle at all. Only clock and calendar words take 에.

Tips

• 에 is a dot, 에서 is a stage. If the sentence only pins something to a spot or sends it there, put a dot on the map with 에. If a scene is being acted out there, you need a stage: 에서. This one image settles almost every case at A1.
• Learn the 에-verbs as a closed list. 있다, 없다, 살다, 가다, 오다, 도착하다 take 에; practically every other verb takes 에서 for its location. Memorising six verbs is faster than reasoning it out mid-sentence.
• ㄹ is an honorary vowel for (으)로. 서울로, 지하철로, 연필로 - never *서울으로. This same ㄹ-behaves-like-a-vowel pattern comes back with 은/는, verb endings and much else, so it is worth noticing now.
• Do not translate English prepositions. English at is 에 in at home (집에 있어요) but 에서 in study at home (집에서 공부해요); English by and with and in (a language) are all one particle, (으)로. Choose from the Korean verb, never from the English word.

In short

Every Korean verb you meet in a dictionary ends in -다. Cut off the -다 and you have the 어간 (eogan, stem) - and almost everything you will ever attach to a verb hangs off that stem. This lesson teaches the single most productive attachment of all: the 아/어/여 form, chosen by one small rule and then contracted.

The rule

Step 1 - Dictionary form = stem + 다

The form in the dictionary is 어간 + -다. The -다 is not part of the word’s meaning; it is just the citation ending.

• 가다 (gada, to go) -> stem 가
• 먹다 (meokda, to eat) -> stem 먹
• 마시다 (masida, to drink) -> stem 마시
• 읽다 (ikda, to read) -> stem 읽

You never say 가다 in a normal sentence. You say 가요, 갔어요, 가서, 가고 - stem plus something. So the first habit to build is: see -다, mentally delete it.

Step 2 - Two shapes of stem

A stem either ends in a vowel (가, 마시, 배우, 하) or in a 받침 (먹, 읽, 앉, 좋). That difference decides whether the ending contracts, and it also decides the (으) in endings like -(으)면 and -(으)세요 later on.

Step 3 - Choose 아 or 어 by the stem’s LAST vowel

This is the whole selection rule, and it has exactly three lines:

1. The stem’s last vowel is ㅏ or ㅗ -> attach -아.
2. Anything else (ㅓ, ㅜ, ㅡ, ㅣ, ㅐ, ㅔ, ㅕ, ㅚ, …) -> attach -어.
3. 하다 is irregular in its own way: 하 + 여 -> 해.

Only the last vowel of the stem counts, never the first. 가르치다 (gareuchida, to teach) has ㅏ in the first syllable, but the last vowel of the stem 가르치 is ㅣ, so it is 가르쳐 (gareucheo), not *가르차.

Stem + -아 / -어 / -여 -> the 아/어 form

Step 4 - Contract, obligatorily

After a 받침 nothing happens - the ending just sits there: 먹 + 어 = 먹어, 읽 + 어 = 읽어, 앉 + 아 = 앉아, 좋 + 아 = 좋아.

After a vowel the two vowels merge, and the merged spelling is the only correct one in normal writing. *가아요 and *마시어요 are simply errors. The full table is in Forms & patterns below - learn it as a table, not as a theory.

Step 5 - 으 is not an irregularity, it is part of this rule

A stem whose last vowel is ㅡ drops that ㅡ before 아/어, and then the harmony is decided by the vowel of the syllable before it:

Stem in 으 + 아/어 -> ㅡ deleted, harmony read from the previous syllable

• 아프다 (apeuda, to hurt): 아프 -> 아ㅍ, previous vowel ㅏ -> 아파 (apa)
• 예쁘다 (yeppeuda, to be pretty): 예쁘 -> 예ㅃ, previous vowel ㅖ -> 예뻐 (yeppeo)
• 쓰다 (sseuda, to write): nothing precedes, so the default 어 wins -> 써 (sseo)

This is regular. Every 으-stem behaves this way, so do not file it with the real irregular classes (lesson 17 and lesson 39), which is where ㅂ, ㄷ, ㅅ, ㄹ, 르 and ㅎ stems are handled.

Step 6 - Why this one form is worth memorising

The 아/어 form is not just for the polite ending. It is the input to a whole family of patterns you will meet over the next two levels - build it once, reuse it everywhere.

Forms & patterns

The selection rule, with worked stems:

The contraction table - the heart of this lesson:

으 탈락 - the ㅡ drops, then look one syllable back:

Where the 아/어 form is consumed downstream:

Note the 띄어쓰기: the ENDINGS 요, -서, -도 attach with no space, but the AUXILIARY VERBS 주다 and 보다 are separate words - 해 주세요, 먹어 보세요.

Examples

• 저는 학교에 가요. (Jeoneun hakgyoe gayo.) - I go to school.
• 친구가 집에 와요. (Chinguga jibe wayo.) - My friend is coming home.
• 저는 물을 마셔요. (Jeoneun mureul masyeoyo.) - I drink water.
• 동생이 한국어를 배워요. (Dongsaengi hangugeoreul baewoyo.) - My younger sibling learns Korean.
• 매일 아침을 먹어요. (Maeil achimeul meogeoyo.) - I eat breakfast every day.
• 저녁에 텔레비전을 봐요. (Jeonyeoge tellebijeoneul bwayo.) - In the evening I watch television.
• 오늘은 배가 아파요. (Oneureun baega apayo.) - Today my stomach hurts.
• 요즘 아주 바빠요. (Yojeum aju bappayo.) - I am very busy these days.
• 여기에서 편지를 써요. (Yeogieseo pyeonjireul sseoyo.) - I write letters here.
• 저는 매일 운동해요. (Jeoneun maeil undonghaeyo.) - I exercise every day.

Common mistakes

• 학교에 가아요. (Hakgyoe gaayo.) -> 학교에 가요. (Hakgyoe gayo.) - The contraction is obligatory, not optional. ㅏ + ㅏ is always written as one ㅏ.
• 저는 밥을 먹아요. (Jeoneun babeul meogayo.) -> 저는 밥을 먹어요. (Jeoneun babeul meogeoyo.) - The stem 먹 has ㅓ, not ㅏ or ㅗ, so the ending is 어. Only ㅏ and ㅗ take 아.
• 선생님이 한국어를 가르차요. (Seonsaengnimi hangugeoreul gareuchayo.) -> 선생님이 한국어를 가르쳐요. (Seonsaengnimi hangugeoreul gareucheoyo.) - Harmony reads the LAST vowel of the stem 가르치 (ㅣ), never the first.
• 머리가 아프어요. (Meoriga apeueoyo.) -> 머리가 아파요. (Meoriga apayo.) - An 으-stem deletes its ㅡ, and the harmony then comes from 아 in 아프.
• 저는 의사가 되요. (Jeoneun uisaga doeyo.) -> 저는 의사가 돼요. (Jeoneun uisaga dwaeyo.) - 되 + 어 contracts to 돼. Even Korean natives slip here; the rule is that 되 alone can never carry 요.

Tips

• One question, one answer. Look at the last vowel of the stem and ask only: “Is it ㅏ or ㅗ?” Yes -> 아. No -> 어. 하다 -> 해. There is no fourth case.
• The 돼 / 되 trick. Wherever you are unsure between 되 and 돼, substitute 하 and 해. If 해 sounds right, write 돼; if 하 sounds right, write 되. So 돼요 (= 해요), but 되고 (= 하고).
• 하다 pays the biggest dividend. Thousands of Korean verbs are a noun plus 하다 (공부하다, 운동하다, 사랑하다), and every one of them ends in 해 - one memorised form unlocks the largest verb class in the language. Written as one word: 공부해요, never *공부 해요.
• Do not conjugate for tense here. Unlike English, the 아/어 form itself carries no tense or person. 먹어 is just “eat” as raw material; tense, politeness and mood all come from what you stack on top of it.

In short

A Korean adjective is not a word you attach “to be” to - it is the verb. 예쁘다 (yeppeuda) means to be pretty, and it conjugates with the same 아/어 engine as 가다: 예뻐요 (yeppeoyo) - it’s pretty. Never add the copula: *예쁜이에요 is the single most common beginner error in the language.

The rule

Step 1 - Korean has no “be + adjective”

English builds descriptions out of two words: is plus pretty. Korean builds them out of one. 형용사 (hyeongyongsa, descriptive verb) is a class of verbs, listed in the dictionary in the same -다 form as action verbs, and conjugated by the same machinery you learned in lesson 10.

So the sentence the weather is good is 날씨가 좋아요. (Nalssiga joayo.) - subject, then the predicate, and nothing else. There is no slot for 이에요/예요 and nothing is missing.

Step 2 - Three predicate classes, plus a hybrid

Every Korean sentence ends in one of these:

• Noun + 이다 - identity. 학생이에요. (Haksaengieyo.) - I’m a student. See lesson 2.
• 동사 (dongsa, action verb) - what someone does. 먹어요. (Meogeoyo.) - (I) eat.
• 형용사 (hyeongyongsa, descriptive verb) - what someone or something is like. 좋아요. (Joayo.) - It’s good.

The fourth, hybrid class is 있다 / 없다. They describe a state like adjectives and conjugate like them, but their modifier form follows the verbs (see Step 6). All the 있다-compounds inherit this: 맛있다, 재미있다, 재미없다.

The practical consequence: only the first class takes 이다. If your predicate is a 형용사, adding 이에요 is like saying it is is-pretty.

Step 3 - Conjugating one is nothing new

Take the dictionary form, strip -다, and apply the 아/어 rule: stem-final ㅏ or ㅗ takes -아요, everything else takes -어요, and 하다 stems take 해요.

• 좋 + 아요 -> 좋아요 (joayo) - it’s good
• 맛있 + 어요 -> 맛있어요 (masisseoyo) - it’s delicious
• 크 + 어요 -> 커요 (keoyo) - it’s big (으-elision, the same contraction as 쓰다 -> 써요)
• 조용하 + 여요 -> 조용해요 (joyonghaeyo) - it’s quiet

Irregular stems behave exactly as they do for action verbs: ㅂ-irregular 덥다 -> 더워요 (deowoyo), but regular 좁다 -> 좁아요 (jobayo). The past tense, 합쇼체, -(으)면 and the rest all attach identically.

Step 4 - What adjectives cannot do

Because they describe a state rather than an action, 형용사 refuse the endings that presuppose doing something:

• -고 있다 (in progress) - a state is not in progress. *좋고 있어요 is impossible; just say 좋아요.
• -고 싶다 (want to) - you cannot want to be tall directly. Use -아/어지다 (become) first: 예뻐지고 싶어요. (Yeppeojigo sipeoyo.) - I want to become pretty.
• -(으)러 (go in order to) - takes an action only. *바쁘러 가요 is impossible.
• Imperatives and propositives - you cannot order someone into a quality. *예쁘세요! as a command and *바쁩시다! (bappeupsida) are both out. Note the trap: 예쁘세요 as a statement is perfectly good - it is honorific description, you are pretty - so the block is on the command reading, not on the shape.

If a pattern works with 형용사, it works because it is state-friendly: -(으)면, -지만, -아/어서, the past -았/었-, and 안-negation all attach freely.

Step 5 - Making a verb out of an adjective: -아/어하다

To turn a description into an action - what a person does about a quality - take the 아/어 form and add 하다:

Adjective 아/어 form + 하다

좋아 + 하다 -> 좋아하다 (joahada, to like), 싫어 + 하다 -> 싫어하다 (sireohada, to dislike), 예뻐 + 하다 -> 예뻐하다 (yeppeohada, to dote on).

This changes the particles. The adjective 좋다 describes the thing, so the thing is the subject with 이/가; the verb 좋아하다 acts on it, so the thing is the object with 을/를:

• 김치가 좋아요. (Gimchiga joayo.) - I like kimchi (literally kimchi is good/pleasing).
• 김치를 좋아해요. (Gimchireul joahaeyo.) - I like kimchi.

The -아/어하다 form is also how you report someone else’s feelings, which is why 좋아하다 is the normal verb for third persons.

Step 6 - 안 + 형용사, and a preview of the modifier split

Negation is simple: put 안 in front, with a space. 안 좋아요 (an joayo), 안 비싸요 (an bissayo). One catch for 하다-adjectives: unlike 하다-verbs, they are single words, so 안 goes before the whole thing - 안 조용해요 (an joyonghaeyo), never *조용 안 해요. Full treatment in lesson 14.

Finally, file this away: when a predicate is put in front of a noun to modify it, the class decides the ending - 동사 takes -는 (먹는 meongneun) and 형용사 takes -(으)ㄴ (예쁜 yeppeun, 좋은 joeun). This is the main reason knowing the class matters; it is taught in full in lesson 24.

Forms & patterns

The predicate classes side by side:

A real adjective paradigm - identical machinery to the action verbs:

Note the last row: 맛있다 is a descriptive verb, but because it is built on 있다 its modifier is -는, not -(으)ㄴ.

The blocked patterns:

형용사 + -아/어하다 -> 동사:

Examples

• 오늘 날씨가 좋아요. (Oneul nalssiga joayo.) - The weather is nice today.
• 이 가방이 너무 비싸요. (I gabangi neomu bissayo.) - This bag is too expensive.
• 김치가 정말 맛있어요. (Gimchiga jeongmal masisseoyo.) - The kimchi is really delicious.
• 제 방이 커요. (Je bangi keoyo.) - My room is big.
• 요즘 아주 바빠요. (Yojeum aju bappayo.) - I’m very busy these days.
• 여름에는 날씨가 더워요. (Yeoreumeneun nalssiga deowoyo.) - In summer the weather is hot.
• 이 영화는 재미없어요. (I yeonghwaneun jaemieopseoyo.) - This movie is boring.
• 저는 조용한 카페가 좋아요. (Jeoneun joyonghan kapega joayo.) - I like quiet cafes.
• 저는 커피를 좋아해요. (Jeoneun keopireul joahaeyo.) - I like coffee.
• 그 식당은 안 비싸요. (Geu sikdangeun an bissayo.) - That restaurant isn’t expensive.

Common mistakes

• 가방이 예쁜이에요. (Gabangi yeppeunieyo.) -> 가방이 예뻐요. (Gabangi yeppeoyo.) - 예쁘다 is already a verb. Adding 이에요 duplicates the predicate; conjugate the adjective instead.
• 크어요. (Keueoyo.) -> 커요. (Keoyo.) - the 으 of the stem drops before -어요. The contraction is obligatory, exactly as in 쓰다 -> 써요.
• 저는 커피를 좋아요. (Jeoneun keopireul joayo.) -> 저는 커피를 좋아해요. (Jeoneun keopireul joahaeyo.) - 좋다 is descriptive and takes 이/가 (커피가 좋아요); with the object particle 을/를 you need the derived verb 좋아하다.
• 날씨가 좋고 있어요. (Nalssiga joko isseoyo.) -> 날씨가 좋아요. (Nalssiga joayo.) - -고 있다 marks an action in progress, and a quality is not an action. The plain form already means is good right now.
• 방이 조용 안 해요. (Bangi joyong an haeyo.) -> 방이 안 조용해요. (Bangi an joyonghaeyo.) - 조용하다 is one word, unlike the 하다-verbs that split (공부 안 해요), so 안 goes in front of the whole adjective.

Tips

• Read the dictionary form as an English sentence, not an English word. Learn 크다 as to be big, not as big. Do that from day one and *큰이에요 never forms in your head.
• A one-question class test. Can you say it with -고 있다, or command it? Then it is a 동사. If both feel wrong, it is a 형용사 - and it will take -(으)ㄴ in front of a noun.
• 좋다 vs 좋아하다 is about who owns the feeling. 좋다 presents the thing as pleasing (김치가 좋아요), 좋아하다 presents you as liking it (김치를 좋아해요). About a third person, the -아/어하다 verb is the natural choice.
• Watch the 있다-family. 맛있다, 재미있다, 재미없다 are descriptive in meaning but take -는 as their modifier: 맛있는 음식 (masinneun eumsik) - tasty food, never *맛있은.

In short

해요체 is the polite everyday speech level, and it is made by one small move: take the 아/어 form you already built in lesson 10 and add 요. The same form does four jobs - statement, question, request and suggestion - and only intonation and context tell them apart.

The rule

Step 1 - The whole recipe is “아/어 form + 요”

Verb or adjective stem + -아/어 + 요

Lesson 10 gave you the engine: a stem whose last vowel is ㅏ or ㅗ takes -아, everything else takes -어, and 하- takes 여 -> 해. 해요체 adds nothing new. It just glues 요 onto that form.

먹다 -> stem 먹- -> 먹어 -> 먹어요 (meogeoyo, eat); 가다 -> 가- -> 가 -> 가요 (gayo, go); 하다 -> 해 -> 해요 (haeyo, do).

The contractions from lesson 10 are obligatory here too: 와요 (wayo, come), 마셔요 (masyeoyo, drink), 줘요 (jwoyo, give), 돼요 (dwaeyo, become, be OK), 배워요 (baewoyo, learn). Never write *가아요 or *하어요.

요 is a single unstressed syllable written with no space: 먹어요, not *먹어 요.

Step 2 - It works the same for every word class

Korean has no separate “to be” for adjectives, so 동사 (action verbs) and 형용사 (descriptive verbs, lesson 11) run through exactly the same machine. 있다/없다 are regular here as well. Only 이다 is special.

동사 읽다 -> 읽어요 (ilgeoyo, read); 형용사 바쁘다 -> 바빠요 (bappayo, is busy); 있어요 (isseoyo) / 없어요 (eopseoyo); and every noun + 하다 verb inherits 해요 - 공부하다 -> 공부해요 (gongbuhaeyo).

Irregular stems stay irregular in front of 요, because the irregularity happens before the ending is even attached: 덥다 -> 더워요 (deowoyo), 듣다 -> 들어요 (deureoyo), 짓다 -> 지어요 (jieoyo), 모르다 -> 몰라요 (mollayo), 쓰다 -> 써요 (sseoyo). But the regular look-alikes stay regular: 입다 -> 입어요 (ibeoyo), 받다 -> 받아요 (badayo), 웃다 -> 웃어요 (useoyo).

Step 3 - 이다 is the one exception: 이에요 / 예요

The copula does not build a plain 아/어 form. Its 해요체 has its own two shapes, chosen by the 받침 of the noun in front of it, and it attaches to that noun with no space:

Noun with 받침 + 이에요 / Noun ending in a vowel + 예요

• 학생 (받침 ㅇ) -> 학생이에요 (haksaengieyo) - is a student
• 의사 (vowel) -> 의사예요 (uisayeyo) - is a doctor

The negative counterpart is 아니에요 (anieyo), which follows 이/가: 학생이 아니에요 (haksaengi anieyo) - is not a student. Full treatment in lesson 2.

Step 4 - One form, four functions

A 해요체 sentence is ambiguous on paper and perfectly clear in speech. Nothing changes in the ending; the intonation and the context choose the reading.

• Statement - falling intonation: 가요. (Gayo.) - I’m going.
• Question - rising intonation, and in writing a question mark; no word order changes and nothing is added: 가요? (Gayo?) - Are you going?
• Request - a soft imperative, often with 좀 or a gesture: 여기 앉아요. (Yeogi anjayo.) - Sit here. It is gentler than -(으)세요 (lesson 21) but also less deferential, so use it with people at or below your own level.
• Suggestion - marked by 같이 (gachi, together) or 우리 (uri, we): 같이 가요. (Gachi gayo.) - Let’s go together.

This is why Korean questions feel easy at first: there is no auxiliary, no inversion, no do-support.

Step 5 - Where 안 goes

안 is a free adverb standing immediately before the predicate, with a space:

안 + [해요체 predicate]

• 안 가요. (An gayo.) - I’m not going.
• 안 바빠요. (An bappayo.) - I’m not busy.

For noun + 하다 verbs the negative splits the word: 공부 안 해요 (gongbu an haeyo), not *안 공부해요. And 있다 is never negated with 안 - its negative is the separate word 없어요. Everything else about negation is lesson 14.

Step 6 - Why this style, and what the other two are

Korean has several speech levels, but only three are fully alive today. 해요체 is this path’s default because it is the overwhelming majority register of ordinary spoken Korean - and of this project’s own Korean phrase corpus. It is polite enough for shops, colleagues, teachers and strangers, and it is what you will actually hear.

The other two live levels are 합쇼체 (-습니다/-ㅂ니다), the formal deferential style of announcements, news and service speech (lesson 27), and 반말 / 해체, the casual style used with close friends and juniors (lesson 44). Note that 반말 is literally 해요체 minus 요: 해요 -> 해.

Never mix levels inside one sentence or one conversation, and match the pronoun: 저는 … 해요 is polite, 나는 … 해 is casual. *저는 … 해 is a register clash.

Forms & patterns

The ending, chosen by the stem’s last vowel:

Obligatory contractions - never write the long form:

Every word class in 해요체:

The copula’s allomorphs, decided by the 받침:

One form, four functions:

The three living speech levels, same sentence:

Examples

• 저는 한국어를 배워요. (Jeoneun Hangugeoreul baewoyo.) - I’m learning Korean.
• 지금 어디에 가요? (Jigeum eodie gayo?) - Where are you going now?
• 우리 같이 점심 먹어요. (Uri gachi jeomsim meogeoyo.) - Let’s have lunch together.
• 여기 앉아요. (Yeogi anjayo.) - Sit here.
• 오늘은 좀 바빠요. (Oneureun jom bappayo.) - I’m a bit busy today.
• 이 커피는 안 뜨거워요. (I keopineun an tteugeowoyo.) - This coffee isn’t hot.
• 저는 회사원이에요. (Jeoneun hoesawonieyo.) - I’m an office worker.
• 친구가 집에 없어요. (Chinguga jibe eopseoyo.) - My friend isn’t at home.
• 매일 아침에 운동해요. (Maeil achime undonghaeyo.) - I exercise every morning.
• 주말에 뭐 해요? (Jumare mwo haeyo?) - What are you doing at the weekend?

Common mistakes

• 가아요. (Gaayo.) -> 가요. (Gayo.) - When the stem already ends in ㅏ, the ending fuses with it. The uncontracted form is never written.
• 하어요. (Haeoyo.) -> 해요. (Haeyo.) - 하다 does not take -어요. It is the one stem that takes 여, and 하 + 여요 always contracts to 해요.
• 저는 학생이예요. (Jeoneun haksaengiyeyo.) -> 저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaengieyo.) - 학생 ends in a 받침, so the copula is 이에요. 예요 appears only after a vowel, as in 의사예요.
• 저는 커피를 마셔. (Jeoneun keopireul masyeo.) -> 저는 커피를 마셔요. (Jeoneun keopireul masyeoyo.) - 저는 is the polite pronoun, so the ending must be polite too. Dropping 요 makes it 반말, and 저 + 반말 is a register clash.
• 안 공부해요. (An gongbuhaeyo.) -> 공부 안 해요. (Gongbu an haeyo.) - In a noun + 하다 verb, 안 goes between the noun and 하다, not in front of the whole word.

Tips

• 요 is a switch, not a word. Add it and you are polite; take it off and you are speaking 반말 to a friend. That single syllable is the most useful thing in beginner Korean - when in doubt, keep it on.
• Learn to hear the question, not to build it. There is no inversion and no auxiliary, so 가요 and 가요? are the same three sounds with different pitch. Practise saying every new verb twice, once falling and once rising.
• 해요체 present tense covers more ground than English present. 가요 can mean I go, I’m going, and - with a time word - even I’m going tomorrow. Do not hunt for a progressive form yet; -고 있다 arrives in lesson 32 and is used far less than English -ing.
• Politeness to the listener is not respect for the subject. 해요체 honours the person you are talking to. Honouring the person you are talking about is a separate machine, -(으)시- (lesson 22), and the two stack independently: 가요 (polite) vs 가세요 (polite + honorific subject).

In short

하다 (hada, to do) glues onto a plain noun and turns it into a verb: 공부 (study) -> 공부하다, 전화 (phone) -> 전화하다. It is the single most productive word in Korean, and it conjugates by one irregular rule you only ever have to learn once: 하 + 여 -> 해.

The rule

Step 1 - Noun + 하다 makes a verb

Take a noun that names an activity and attach 하다 with no space. The whole thing behaves as one ordinary verb.

Noun + 하다 -> Noun + 해요

• 공부 (gongbu, study) -> 공부해요 (gongbuhaeyo, [I] study)
• 일 (il, work) -> 일해요 (ilhaeyo, [I] work)
• 전화 (jeonhwa, a phone call) -> 전화해요 (jeonhwahaeyo, [I] call)
• 운동 (undong, exercise) -> 운동해요 (undonghaeyo, [I] exercise)

The mechanism is still open: Korean applies it to new loanwords the moment they arrive. 체크하다 (chekeuhada, to check), 스캔하다 (seukaenhada, to scan), 클릭하다 (keullikada, to click) are all built the same way. If you know the noun, you can usually build the verb.

Step 2 - The 여 불규칙, learned once for hundreds of verbs

Every other verb picks -아요 or -어요 by its stem vowel (lesson 10). 하다 belongs to a class of its own: its stem 하- takes -여요, and 하 + 여 contracts to 해. *하아요 does not exist at all; the uncontracted 하여요 is a real form, but a stiff literary one, so in ordinary speech and writing always write 해요.

That one contraction propagates through the whole paradigm, because everything built on the 아/어 form inherits it:

해요 (haeyo) - 했어요 (haesseoyo) - 해서 (haeseo) - 해야 (haeya) - 해 주세요 (hae juseyo)

The forms built on the stem instead, not on the 아/어 form, are perfectly regular: 하세요 (haseyo), 할 거예요 (hal geoyeyo), 하면 (hamyeon), 하고 (hago). And because this applies to 하다 itself, it applies automatically to 공부하다, 전화하다, 사랑하다 and every other member: 공부해요, 전화했어요, 사랑해서.

Step 3 - The separable object: 공부해요 vs 공부를 해요

The noun inside a 하다 verb is still a noun, so it can be pulled out and marked as a real object with 을/를:

Noun + 하다 (solid, the default) <-> Noun + 을/를 + 하다 (split)

• 공부해요 (gongbuhaeyo) <-> 공부를 해요 (gongbureul haeyo)
• 전화했어요 (jeonhwahaesseoyo) <-> 전화를 했어요 (jeonhwareul haesseoyo)

Two things decide which you write:

• Solid is the neutral form. Use it unless something forces a split.
• An adverb or a modifier between the noun and 하다 forces the split, because you cannot insert anything inside a single word: 공부를 열심히 해요 (Gongbureul yeolsimhi haeyo, [I] study hard), 전화를 두 번 했어요 (Jeonhwareul du beon haesseoyo, [I] called twice).

The split also adds a light emphasis on the noun. Note the spacing follows automatically: once 을/를 is there, 해요 is a separate word and takes a space.

One clause holds one object. If the sentence already has an object, keep 하다 solid: 한국어를 공부해요, never *한국어를 공부를 해요.

Step 4 - 하다-adjectives

Not every 하다 word is an action. Many are descriptive verbs (lesson 11) - they describe a state, and they simply happen to end in 하다:

조용하다 (joyonghada, to be quiet), 깨끗하다 (kkaekkeutada, to be clean), 필요하다 (piryohada, to be necessary), 미안하다 (mianhada, to be sorry), 중요하다 (jungyohada, to be important)

They conjugate identically - 조용해요, 깨끗했어요 - but they carry the restrictions of every descriptive verb:

• No 을/를 split. There is no object to pull out: 조용을 해요 is not Korean. The related adverb is 조용히 (joyonghi): 조용히 해요 ([I] keep quiet*).
• No imperative or proposal. *깨끗하세요 is wrong; you say 깨끗하게 하세요 (kkaekkeutage haseyo, make it clean).
• 필요하다 marks what is needed with 이/가, not 을/를: 돈이 필요해요 (Doni piryohaeyo, [I] need money), never *돈을 필요해요.

Quick test: if Noun + 을/를 + 해요 is possible, it is an action verb; if not, it is an adjective.

Step 5 - 하다 vs 되다

Many nouns take both 하다 and 되다 (doeda, to become / to get done). The pair splits the work:

• 하다 - somebody does it. 제가 회의를 시작해요. (Jega hoeuireul sijakaeyo.) - I start the meeting.
• 되다 - it happens, with no agent named. 회의가 시작돼요. (Hoeuiga sijakdwaeyo.) - The meeting starts.

되다 is not irregular - it simply contracts: 되 + 어요 -> 돼요 (dwaeyo), 되 + 었어요 -> 됐어요 (dwaesseoyo), and the contracted spelling is the normal one. Common pairs: 시작하다/시작되다, 준비하다/준비되다, 걱정하다/걱정되다, 취소하다/취소되다. Note that 되다 takes 이/가 on what English would call the object. This is the doorway to the passive - full treatment in lesson 55.

Step 6 - Spacing

명사+하다 is one word: 공부하다, 운동하다, 전화하다. Writing *공부 하다 with a space is a spelling error. The space appears only when a particle comes between them (공부를 해요) or when 하다 is the free verb to do (뭐 해요? - What are you doing?).

Forms & patterns

하다 in full - the paradigm you reuse for every 하다 verb:

Noun + 하다, solid and split:

하다-adjectives - same endings, different rules:

하다 vs 되다:

Examples

• 저는 매일 한국어를 공부해요. (Jeoneun maeil hangugeoreul gongbuhaeyo.) - I study Korean every day.
• 오늘은 공부를 많이 했어요. (Oneureun gongbureul mani haesseoyo.) - Today I studied a lot.
• 어제 친구한테 전화했어요. (Eoje chinguhante jeonhwahaesseoyo.) - I called my friend yesterday.
• 주말에 공원에서 운동해요. (Jumare gongwoneseo undonghaeyo.) - I exercise at the park on weekends.
• 저는 가족을 사랑해요. (Jeoneun gajogeul saranghaeyo.) - I love my family.
• 지금 시험을 준비해요. (Jigeum siheomeul junbihaeyo.) - I’m preparing for the exam right now.
• 도서관이 아주 조용해요. (Doseogwani aju joyonghaeyo.) - The library is very quiet.
• 저는 지금 돈이 필요해요. (Jeoneun jigeum doni piryohaeyo.) - I need money right now.
• 수업이 아홉 시에 시작돼요. (Sueobi ahop sie sijakdwaeyo.) - The class starts at nine.
• 내일 이메일을 체크할 거예요. (Naeil imeireul chekeuhal geoyeyo.) - I’ll check the email tomorrow.

Common mistakes

• 하아요. (Haayo.) -> 해요. (Haeyo.) - 하다 does not take -아요. Its stem takes -여요, and 하 + 여 contracts to 해.
• 저는 공부 해요. (Jeoneun gongbu haeyo.) -> 저는 공부해요. (Jeoneun gongbuhaeyo.) - with no particle between them, the noun and 하다 are a single word and take no space.
• 조용을 해요. (Joyongeul haeyo.) -> 조용히 해요. (Joyonghi haeyo.) - 조용하다 is a descriptive verb, so there is no object noun to split off. Use the adverb 조용히.
• 저는 돈을 필요해요. (Jeoneun doneul piryohaeyo.) -> 저는 돈이 필요해요. (Jeoneun doni piryohaeyo.) - 필요하다 describes a state, not an action; what you need is its subject, marked with 이/가.
• 제가 회의를 시작돼요. (Jega hoeuireul sijakdwaeyo.) -> 제가 회의를 시작해요. (Jega hoeuireul sijakaeyo.) - 되다 never takes an object. If you name the person doing it, the verb must be 하다.

Tips

• Learn 하다 once, get hundreds of verbs free. 해요, 했어요, 해서, 해야, 하세요, 할 거예요 is the whole story. Every 명사+하다 verb - including ones invented last week - inflects exactly like this, so the 여 불규칙 is the highest-return five minutes in A1.
• The 을/를 test tells you the word class. If Noun + 을/를 + 해요 sounds right (공부를 해요, 운동을 해요), it is an action verb. If it does not (*조용을 해요, *필요를 해요), it is a 하다-adjective and follows lesson 11’s rules instead.
• 하다 = I do it, 되다 = it gets done. English uses one verb for both (the meeting starts / I start the meeting); Korean makes you choose, and 되다 puts 이/가 on the thing affected.
• Negation goes inside the compound. With 안, the split is obligatory: 공부 안 해요 (gongbu an haeyo), not *안 공부해요. The full picture is next door in lesson 14.

In short

Korean negates a sentence in two ways: put the little adverb 안 (an, not) or 못 (mot, can’t) in front of the predicate, or attach the long ending -지 않다 / -지 못하다 to the stem. 안 denies; 못 says you were unable. Three verbs refuse the negative adverbs and use a separate negative word instead: 있다 -> 없다, 알다 -> 모르다, 이다 -> 아니다.

The rule

Step 1 - Two negatives, and they mean different things

안 is plain denial: it doesn’t happen, it isn’t so, or I choose not to. 못 says the action was blocked - by lack of ability, by circumstances, by someone else.

• 안 가요. (An gayo.) - I’m not going. (I don’t want to, I have no reason to.)
• 못 가요. (Mot gayo.) - I can’t go. (Something is stopping me.)

Because 못 is about ability, it attaches only to 동사 (action verbs). An adjective describes a state, and a state cannot be “unable”, so *못 바빠요 is impossible - the negative of 바빠요 is 안 바빠요 (an bappayo, isn’t busy).

Step 2 - Short form: a free adverb standing before the predicate

안 / 못 + [predicate], with a space.

They stand immediately before the verb - after the object, after the place, after everything else, because Korean is verb-final:

Object + 을/를 + 안 + Verb - 저는 아침을 안 먹어요. (Jeoneun achimeul an meogeoyo.) - I don’t eat breakfast.

The space matters. 안 가다 is not to go, but 안가 written solid is a different word altogether, and 못 하다 (to be unable to do it) is not 못하다 (to be bad at something) - see the Tips.

Step 3 - Long form: an ending stacked on the stem

Verb or adjective stem + -지 않다 / Verb stem + -지 못하다

This one is a real ending, so it goes on the stem, and then 않다/못하다 conjugates as usual: 않다 -> 않아요 (anayo), 못하다 -> 못해요 (motaeyo).

가다 -> 가- -> 가지 않아요 (gaji anayo); 먹다 -> 먹- -> 먹지 못해요 (meokji motaeyo).

Two things make -지 unusually easy. It has no allomorphs - unlike 은/는, 이/가 or -(으)면, it attaches in one single shape whether the stem ends in a vowel or a 받침. And because it starts with a consonant, it never triggers an irregular stem: 덥다 -> 덥지 않아요 (deopji anayo), not *더우지 않아요.

Spacing: 않아요 and 못해요 are separate auxiliary words, so 하지 않아요 takes a space. *하지않아요 is a spelling error.

The long form is not more polite - it is more written and more emphatic. In ordinary speech the short form is far more common.

Step 4 - 하다 verbs split in the short form only

A noun + 하다 verb like 공부하다 is one word, but 안 and 못 wedge themselves in between the noun and 하다:

• 공부 안 해요. (Gongbu an haeyo.) - I don’t study. Never *안 공부해요.
• 공부 못 해요. (Gongbu mot haeyo.) - I can’t study.

The long form does not split, because it is an ending on the whole stem: 공부하지 않아요 (gongbuhaji anayo).

Two groups look like 하다 verbs but do not split:

• 하다-adjectives: only a 동사 splits, so 안 stays in front of the whole word - 안 피곤해요 (an pigonhaeyo, isn’t tired), not *피곤 안 해요. (피곤 is a perfectly good noun; what blocks the split is that 피곤하다 is a 형용사.)
• Lexicalized verbs whose 하다 sits on a verb form rather than a noun: 안 좋아해요 (an joahaeyo, doesn’t like), 안 싫어해요 (an sireohaeyo, doesn’t dislike).

Step 5 - Three verbs have a suppletive negative

Some words own a separate negative word, and the negative adverbs are simply ungrammatical with them.

• 있다 -> 없다: *안 있어요 is wrong; say 없어요 (eopseoyo). See lesson 6.
• 알다 -> 모르다: *안 알아요 is wrong; say 몰라요 (mollayo, 르-irregular).
• 이다 -> 아니다: *학생이 안 이에요 is wrong; say 학생이 아니에요 (haksaengi anieyo), with 이/가 on the noun. See lesson 2.

The block is on the short adverb. The long ending is still possible in careful writing (알지 못해요, 있지 않아요), but as a beginner use the suppletive word.

Step 6 - 못 is spelled 못 and pronounced [몯]

The 받침 ㅅ in 못 is never an [s]. It neutralises to a plain [t] stop, and then reacts to whatever follows - this is why 못 sounds different in almost every sentence while the spelling never changes. The full set of rules lives in the reading and pronunciation guide, in its lesson on the sound changes that the spelling hides; the table below has the four cases you need now.

Step 7 - Adverbs that require a negative

A small set of adverbs and adverbial phrases is negative-polarity: they license, and demand, a negative predicate. Saying them with a positive verb is a real error, not a stylistic slip.

별로 (byeollo, not particularly), 전혀 (jeonhyeo, not at all), 하나도 (hanado, not one bit - literally 하나 + the particle 도, see lesson 15).

별로 안 좋아해요. (Byeollo an joahaeyo.) - I don’t like it much. But *별로 좋아해요 is wrong - there is no positive 별로.

아직 (ajik) is not one of these. Paired with a negative it means not yet (아직 안 왔어요. Ajik an wasseoyo. - hasn’t come yet), but with a positive predicate it simply means still (아직 자요. Ajik jayo. - is still asleep), so on its own it does not demand a negative.

Forms & patterns

안 vs 못 - the core contrast:

Short form vs long form - same meaning, different register:

-지 않다 attaches in one shape - no allomorphs:

The three suppletive negatives:

How 못 is pronounced:

Revised Romanization writes assimilation and aspiration but not tensing, so 못 가요 is romanized mot gayo even though the ㄱ is tense.

Adverbs that demand a negative:

Examples

• 저는 커피를 안 마셔요. (Jeoneun keopireul an masyeoyo.) - I don’t drink coffee.
• 오늘은 학교에 안 가요. (Oneureun hakgyoe an gayo.) - I’m not going to school today.
• 주말에는 일 안 해요. (Jumareneun il an haeyo.) - I don’t work at the weekend.
• 저는 술을 못 마셔요. (Jeoneun sureul mot masyeoyo.) - I can’t drink alcohol.
• 어제 파티에 못 갔어요. (Eoje patie mot gasseoyo.) - I couldn’t go to the party yesterday.
• 저는 수영을 못해요. (Jeoneun suyeongeul motaeyo.) - I can’t swim.
• 이 책은 별로 어렵지 않아요. (I chaegeun byeollo eoryeopji anayo.) - This book isn’t very difficult.
• 그 사람 이름을 전혀 몰라요. (Geu saram ireumeul jeonhyeo mollayo.) - I don’t know his name at all.
• 아직 점심을 안 먹었어요. (Ajik jeomsimeul an meogeosseoyo.) - I haven’t had lunch yet.
• 지금은 시간이 없어요. (Jigeumeun sigani eopseoyo.) - I don’t have time right now.

Common mistakes

• 안 공부해요. (An gongbuhaeyo.) -> 공부 안 해요. (Gongbu an haeyo.) - In the short form, 안 splits a noun + 하다 verb and stands just before 하다. Only the long form keeps the word whole: 공부하지 않아요.
• 저는 안 알아요. (Jeoneun an arayo.) -> 저는 몰라요. (Jeoneun mollayo.) - 알다 has its own negative word, 모르다. The same block applies to 있다, whose negative is 없다.
• 어제 안 잤어요. (Eoje an jasseoyo.) -> 어제 못 잤어요. (Eoje mot jasseoyo.) - If sleep would not come, that is inability: 못. 안 잤어요 says you deliberately stayed up.
• 가지않아요. (Gajianayo.) -> 가지 않아요. (Gaji anayo.) - 않아요 is an auxiliary verb, not a suffix, so 띄어쓰기 requires the space. Same for 하지 못해요.
• 오늘은 못 바빠요. (Oneureun mot bappayo.) -> 오늘은 안 바빠요. (Oneureun an bappayo.) - 못 negates only action verbs. A state cannot be “unable”, so adjectives always take 안.

Tips

• 안 = won’t, 못 = can’t. Ask yourself whether the thing failed to happen because of a decision (안) or because of an obstacle (못). English blurs this - I didn’t go covers both - so the choice has to be made consciously every time.
• The space is a different word. 못 하다 (mot hada) is couldn’t do it; 못하다 (motada) written solid is to be bad at it. So 수영을 못해요 = I can’t swim / I’m a poor swimmer, while 숙제를 못 했어요 = I didn’t manage to do the homework. Likewise 잘 못해요 (I’m not good at it) vs 잘 못 해요 (I couldn’t do it properly).
• Speak short, write long. Learners often reach for -지 않다 because it looks more like a grammar rule. Native speech reaches for 안 and 못 first. Default to the short form and keep the long one for writing and for stressing the denial.
• 별로 and 전혀 are half a negative. They cannot stand alone the way English hardly or barely can - the negative predicate must still be there. If you say 별로, your sentence has already promised an 안, a 못 or a 없어요 at the end.

In short

도 (too, also, even), 만 (only) and 밖에 (nothing but) attach to a noun with no space and add focus to it. The rule you must not forget: they push out 이/가, 은/는 and 을/를, but they stack after 에, 에서 and 한테 - and 밖에 always needs a negative predicate (안, 못, 없다, 모르다).

The rule

Step 1 - One shape, no allomorphs

Unlike 이/가 or 을/를, these three never change form. 도 is always 도, 만 is always 만, 밖에 is always 밖에, after a vowel and after a 받침 alike: 저도 (jeodo), 책도 (chaekdo), 물만 (mulman), 하나만 (hanaman), 물밖에 (mulbakke). That is the easy half of the lesson.

Step 2 - 도 = too, also, even

Noun + 도. It says “this one as well as the other one.”

• 저도 학생이에요. (Jeodo haksaengieyo.) - I am a student too.
• 김치도 좋아해요. (Gimchido joahaeyo.) - I like kimchi too.

Repeat it on two nouns and you get both … and:

• 커피도 차도 좋아해요. (Keopido chado joahaeyo.) - I like both coffee and tea.

With something unexpected, the same 도 means even:

• 아이도 알아요. (Aido arayo.) - Even a child knows it.

Step 3 - 만 = only, just

Noun + 만. It shuts everything else out, neutrally - no complaint attached.

• 저는 물만 마셔요. (Jeoneun mulman masyeoyo.) - I drink only water.
• 공부만 해요. (Gongbuman haeyo.) - [He] does nothing but study.

Step 4 - The stacking rule (the real content of this lesson)

Korean particles come in two groups, and the focus particles treat them differently.

Group A - replaced. The subject 이/가, the topic 은/는 and the object 을/를 disappear. You write the noun, then 도/만/밖에, and nothing else:

• 저는 + 도 -> 저도 (never *저는도)
• 김치를 + 도 -> 김치도 (never *김치를도)

도 never lets the case marker back in. 만 is the one form to watch: the case marker can never come before it, but in careful or emphatic style it can follow it (저만이 왔어요, Jeomani wasseoyo; 그것만을 원해요, Geugeonmaneul wonhaeyo). At A1 the bare 저만 is what you want.

Group B - kept. The place and role particles 에, 에서, 한테/에게, (으)로 stay, and the focus particle comes after them:

• 집에 + 도 -> 집에도 (jibedo, at home too)
• 도서관에서 + 만 -> 도서관에서만 (doseogwaneseoman, only at the library)
• 친구한테 + 밖에 -> 친구한테밖에 (chinguhantebakke, to nobody but my friend)

The order is fixed: Noun + place particle + 도/만/밖에. *집도에서 is wrong.

Step 5 - 밖에 = nothing but, and it demands a negative

Noun + 밖에 + negative predicate. This is not a stylistic preference - a positive verb after 밖에 is simply ungrammatical. The negative can be 없다, 안, 못, -지 않다 or 모르다:

• 물밖에 없어요. (Mulbakke eopseoyo.) - There is nothing but water.
• 저밖에 안 왔어요. (Jeobakke an wasseoyo.) - Nobody but me came.
• 하나밖에 못 샀어요. (Hanabakke mot sasseoyo.) - I could only buy one.

English translates all of these with only, and the English only is positive - which is exactly why learners drop the 안/못. Train the pair as one chunk: 밖에 … 안/못/없어요.

Step 6 - 만 vs 밖에

Both come out as only in English, but they carry different attitudes.

• 하나만 샀어요. (Hanaman sasseoyo.) - I bought just one. Neutral: one was what I wanted.
• 하나밖에 안 샀어요. (Hanabakke an sasseoyo.) - I bought only one. Loaded: one is not much, and I feel it.

So 밖에 carries a built-in and that is too few / too little. When you simply want to state a restriction, use 만.

Step 7 - 도 with a negative: 도 안, 도 못, 하나도 안

도 combines happily with negation and gives not … either:

• 저도 안 가요. (Jeodo an gayo.) - I am not going either.

Fixed and very frequent: 하나도 + negative = not … at all (literally “not even one”).

• 하나도 안 매워요. (Hanado an maewoyo.) - It is not spicy at all.
• 하나도 없어요. (Hanado eopseoyo.) - There is none at all.

The same trick makes 아무 words negative: 아무도 안 와요. (Amudo an wayo.) - Nobody is coming.

Forms & patterns

The stacking table - what gets replaced, what gets kept:

만 vs 밖에 - the same fact, two attitudes:

Which negatives license 밖에:

Examples

• 저도 학생이에요. (Jeodo haksaengieyo.) - I am a student too.
• 커피도 차도 좋아해요. (Keopido chado joahaeyo.) - I like both coffee and tea.
• 주말에도 일해요. (Jumaredo ilhaeyo.) - I work on weekends too.
• 저는 물만 마셔요. (Jeoneun mulman masyeoyo.) - I drink only water.
• 도서관에서만 공부해요. (Doseogwaneseoman gongbuhaeyo.) - I study only at the library.
• 냉장고에 물밖에 없어요. (Naengjanggo-e mulbakke eopseoyo.) - There is nothing but water in the fridge.
• 오늘은 저밖에 안 왔어요. (Oneureun jeobakke an wasseoyo.) - Today nobody but me came.
• 사과 하나밖에 못 샀어요. (Sagwa hanabakke mot sasseoyo.) - I could only buy one apple.
• 저도 안 가요. (Jeodo an gayo.) - I am not going either.
• 이 음식은 하나도 안 매워요. (I eumsigeun hanado an maewoyo.) - This food is not spicy at all.

Common mistakes

• 저는도 학생이에요. (Jeoneundo haksaengieyo.) -> 저도 학생이에요. (Jeodo haksaengieyo.) - 도 replaces the subject 이/가, the topic 은/는 and the object 을/를 - it does not queue up behind them. The same forms hold for 만 and 밖에: 저만, 저밖에, 김치도.
• 집도에서 공부해요. (Jipdo-eseo gongbuhaeyo.) -> 집에서도 공부해요. (Jibeseodo gongbuhaeyo.) - 에/에서/한테 are kept, and the focus particle goes last. Never insert 도 in front of a place particle.
• 물밖에 있어요. (Mulbakke isseoyo.) -> 물밖에 없어요. (Mulbakke eopseoyo.) - 밖에 cannot stand with a positive predicate. If you want a positive verb, switch to 만: 물만 있어요.
• 하나밖에 샀어요. (Hanabakke sasseoyo.) -> 하나밖에 안 샀어요. (Hanabakke an sasseoyo.) - English only is positive and the 안 gets lost in translation. 밖에 and 안/못 travel together.
• 집 밖에 없어요. (Jip bakke eopseoyo.) -> 집밖에 없어요. (Jipbakke eopseoyo.) - Spacing changes the word. Written solid, 밖에 is the particle nothing but; written apart, 밖 is the noun outside, so 집 밖에 means outside the house.

Tips

• Two groups, one line to remember them: “role particles die, place particles survive.” 이/가, 은/는, 을/를 are swallowed by 도/만/밖에; 에, 에서, 한테, (으)로 stay put and take the focus particle on their back. Almost every error in this lesson is a violation of that one line.
• 밖에 is a negative-polarity item - like English anything in “I don’t have anything”. You would never say I have anything, and Korean feels the same way about 밖에 without 안/못/없다. Drill the frame ___밖에 없어요 until it is automatic.
• Pick 만 when you are neutral, 밖에 when you are disappointed. 십 분만 있어요 (Sip bunman isseoyo) is I have just ten minutes (that is enough); 십 분밖에 없어요 (Sip bunbakke eopseoyo) is I have only ten minutes (help). Native speakers hear the difference immediately.
• 하나도 does not mean “one also”. It is not a dictionary word of its own - it is 하나 + 도 - but with a negative it works as a fixed expression meaning not at all: 하나도 안 매워요, 하나도 없어요, 하나도 모르겠어요 (Hanado moreugesseoyo, I have no idea at all). Treat it as a single vocabulary item.

In short

The Korean past tense is one syllable slipped into a word you can already build: take the 아/어 form from lesson 10, add ㅆ, and finish with 어요. 먹어 -> 먹었어요, 가 -> 갔어요, 해 -> 했어요. There is no separate perfect tense - this one form covers ate, have eaten and had eaten.

The rule

Step 1 - The past marker sits INSIDE the word, before the final ending

Korean is agglutinative: a predicate is a stem with slots stacked on it, and the sentence ending always comes last. Tense goes in the slot just before it.

Stem + [아/어 form] + -ㅆ- + -어요

So 먹었어요 is not one lump but 먹 + 었 + 어요: stem, past, politeness. That is why you will later see 먹었는데, 먹었지만, 먹었습니다 - the same 었 with a different ending bolted on.

Step 2 - Choosing 았 or 었 is the lesson-12 rule again, nothing new

-았- and -었- are the same 아/어 pair you already know, with ㅆ riding on top:

1. Stem’s last vowel is ㅏ or ㅗ -> -았-. 받다 -> 받 + 았 -> 받았어요 (badasseoyo, received).
2. Anything else -> -었-. 먹다 -> 먹 + 었 -> 먹었어요 (meogeosseoyo, ate).
3. 하다 -> 했-. 하 + 였 -> 했어요 (haesseoyo, did), and so every noun + 하다 verb: 공부했어요 (gongbuhaesseoyo, studied).

Only the last vowel of the stem counts, exactly as before.

Step 3 - The contractions are the same ones, and still obligatory

If the stem ends in a vowel, the 아/어 merges into it first, and then ㅆ lands on the merged block. *가았어요 is simply impossible, and although the uncontracted 마시었어요 is tolerated on paper, nobody writes it - use 마셨어요. The full list is in Forms & patterns - it is the lesson-12 table with 어요 swapped for ㅆ어요.

Step 4 - The shortcut: 해요체 minus 요, plus ㅆ어요

Because the past is built on the same 아/어 form as 해요체, you can go straight from the polite present to the polite past:

[해요체 form] - 요 + ㅆ어요

가요 -> 갔어요, 마셔요 -> 마셨어요, 배워요 -> 배웠어요, 돼요 -> 됐어요, 해요 -> 했어요. This works for every verb and every adjective. The copula is the one exception (Step 5) - do not run 이에요 through it.

Note that the ending after the past marker is always 어요, never 아요. The 아/어 choice is made once, before the ㅆ; after it, 었어요 is fixed. *갔아요 is always wrong.

Step 5 - 이다, 아니다, 있다, 없다

The copula’s 해요체 이에요/예요 is not built on an 아/어 form, so the Step-4 shortcut does not apply; its past is chosen instead by the 받침 of the noun in front:

Noun with 받침 + 이었어요 / Noun ending in a vowel + 였어요

학생 (받침 ㅇ) -> 학생이었어요 (haksaengieosseoyo, was a student); 의사 (vowel) -> 의사였어요 (uisayeosseoyo, was a doctor). 였어요 is simply 이었어요 contracted after a vowel. The negative is 아니었어요 (anieosseoyo), still with 이/가: 학생이 아니었어요 (haksaengi anieosseoyo).

있다/없다, by contrast, are perfectly regular: 있었어요 (isseosseoyo, there was, had) and 없었어요 (eopseosseoyo, there wasn’t, didn’t have).

Step 6 - Adjectives take the past too

Korean 형용사 are verbs (lesson 11), so they inflect for tense just like action verbs - where English needs was + adjective, Korean needs no 이다 at all: 추웠어요 (chuwosseoyo, it was cold), 좋았어요 (joasseoyo, it was good), 바빴어요 (bappasseoyo, I was busy).

추웠어요 comes from 춥다, a ㅂ-irregular (춥 -> 추워); its regular look-alike 좁다 gives 좁았어요 (jobasseoyo). The irregular classes are lesson 17 - what matters here is that the irregularity happens before the ㅆ is attached, so the past never fixes a stem you conjugated wrongly.

Step 7 - Negation in the past

Negation is built exactly as in lesson 14; only the ending goes past.

• Short form - 안 and 못 stay free adverbs with a space, and the past marker goes on the verb: 안 갔어요 (an gasseoyo, didn’t go), 못 갔어요 (mot gasseoyo, couldn’t go).
• Long form - the past marker goes on the AUXILIARY, not on the main stem: 가지 않았어요 (gaji anasseoyo), 먹지 못했어요 (meokji motaesseoyo). Never *갔지 않아요.

Step 8 - -았/었었- for a discontinued past

Doubling the marker gives -았었-/-었었-, which says the situation held once and is now clearly over, with no trace left in the present.

• 서울에 살았어요. (Seoure sarasseoyo.) - I lived in Seoul (neutral; possibly still there).
• 서울에 살았었어요. (Seoure sarasseosseoyo.) - I used to live in Seoul (and I no longer do).

It is far rarer than English used to. Plain -았/었- is the default; reach for -았었- only when the break with the present is the point.

Step 9 - Korean past is not the English perfect

One Korean form covers I ate, I have eaten and I had eaten. So 아침 먹었어요? (Achim meogeosseoyo?) means Have you had breakfast?, not Did you eat breakfast (at some point in your life)?.

The reverse trap matters more: several Korean verbs describe entering a state, so their PAST is the natural way to say a PRESENT English state - 결혼했어요 (gyeolhonhaesseoyo) is I am married, 왔어요 (wasseoyo) is he’s here, 늦었어요 (neujeosseoyo) is I’m late.

Forms & patterns

Choosing the marker - the lesson-12 rule with ㅆ on top:

Vowel-final stems - the contractions from lesson 10, obligatory here too:

이다, 아니다, 있다/없다 and adjectives:

The past in negation, in 합쇼체, and doubled:

Examples

• 어제 학교에 갔어요. (Eoje hakgyoe gasseoyo.) - I went to school yesterday.
• 친구가 집에 왔어요. (Chinguga jibe wasseoyo.) - A friend came to my house.
• 아침 먹었어요? (Achim meogeosseoyo?) - Have you had breakfast?
• 주말에 영화를 봤어요. (Jumare yeonghwareul bwasseoyo.) - I watched a film at the weekend.
• 어제는 정말 추웠어요. (Eojeneun jeongmal chuwosseoyo.) - Yesterday was really cold.
• 그때 저는 학생이었어요. (Geuttae jeoneun haksaengieosseoyo.) - At that time I was a student.
• 시간이 없었어요. (Sigani eopseosseoyo.) - I didn’t have time.
• 어제는 회사에 안 갔어요. (Eojeneun hoesae an gasseoyo.) - I didn’t go to the office yesterday.
• 작년에 한국어를 배웠어요. (Jangnyeone Hangugeoreul baewosseoyo.) - I learned Korean last year.
• 잘 지냈어요? (Jal jinaesseoyo?) - How have you been?

Common mistakes

• 어제 학교에 가요. (Eoje hakgyoe gayo.) -> 어제 학교에 갔어요. (Eoje hakgyoe gasseoyo.) - A time word like 어제 does not mark tense. Korean puts the past on the verb, every time, even when the adverb already says it.
• 밥을 먹었아요. (Babeul meogeosayo.) -> 밥을 먹었어요. (Babeul meogeosseoyo.) - After the past marker the ending is always 어요. The 아/어 choice is spent on 았/었 and is never made twice.
• 저는 학생이였어요. (Jeoneun haksaengiyeosseoyo.) -> 저는 학생이었어요. (Jeoneun haksaengieosseoyo.) - 학생 ends in a 받침, so the copula past is 이었어요. 였어요 appears only after a vowel, as in 의사였어요.
• 어제 못갔어요. (Eoje motgasseoyo.) -> 어제 못 갔어요. (Eoje mot gasseoyo.) - 못 is a free adverb and takes a space. Written solid, 못하다 is a different word meaning to be bad at something.
• 학교에 갔지 않아요. (Hakgyoe gatji anayo.) -> 학교에 가지 않았어요. (Hakgyoe gaji anasseoyo.) - In the long negative the tense goes on the auxiliary 않다, not on the main stem. The main verb stays bare: 가지.

Tips

• Build it from 해요체, not from the dictionary. Say the polite present out loud, drop 요, add ㅆ어요: 마셔요 -> 마셨어요, 돼요 -> 됐어요. One move, no new rule - and it keeps your contractions honest, because a wrong 해요체 form is the only way to get a wrong past.
• One Korean past = three English tenses. I ate, I have eaten and I had eaten are all 먹었어요. Stop looking for a perfect; Korean marks when with adverbs (어제, 아까, 작년에) and leaves the verb alone.
• Beware the state verbs. 결혼했어요, 왔어요, 늦었어요 and 알았어요 look past but describe now: I’m married, he’s here, I’m late, got it. Translating them as English pasts is one of the most common beginner misreadings.
• -았었- is not English used to. Plain -았/었- already handles most past narration. Save the doubled form for a state that is emphatically finished, and expect to hear it far less often than you would say used to.

In short

Some stems change their final consonant when a vowel-initial ending arrives: 덥다 -> 더워요 (deowoyo, it’s hot), 듣다 -> 들어요 (deureoyo, I listen), 짓다 -> 지어요 (jieoyo, I build). And a ㄹ-final stem does the opposite - it drops its ㄹ in front of ㄴ, ㅂ and ㅅ: 살다 -> 삽니다, 사세요, 사는. Nothing here is optional, and a look-alike like 받다 or 입다 stays perfectly regular.

The rule

Step 1 - The change happens BEFORE the ending, not to the ending

You already know the 아/어 engine (lesson 10). An irregular class does not change that engine; it changes the stem first, and then the normal engine runs on the changed stem. So the question is always the same two-part question:

1. What class is this stem in? (You learn that with the word, like a gender in German.)
2. What does the ending it meets start with?

Step 2 - Three ending classes, and that is all

Every ending you will ever attach falls into one of three buckets, and the bucket decides whether anything happens:

• Vowel-initial: -아/어요, -았/었어요, -아/어서. These fire ㅂ, ㄷ and ㅅ.
• -(으)- endings: -(으)면, -(으)세요, -(으)니까, -(으)ㄴ, -(으)ㄹ. These also fire ㅂ, ㄷ and ㅅ, because the 으 is a vowel.
• Plain consonant-initial: -고, -지만, -게, -겠-, -습니다. Nothing happens to a ㅂ, ㄷ or ㅅ stem - it is written exactly as in the dictionary: 덥고 (deopgo), 듣고 (deutgo), 짓고 (jitgo). (A ㄹ stem is the one that still reacts here, to ㄴ, ㅂ and ㅅ - see Step 6.)

Step 3 - ㅂ 불규칙: the ㅂ becomes 우

Drop the ㅂ and put 우 in its place; the 우 then merges with the following vowel. Because 우 is not ㅏ or ㅗ, the ending is always 어, so the 해요 form always comes out as -워요:

덥 + 어요 -> 더우 + 어요 -> 더워요

Two members break the pattern in one place only: 돕다 (dopda, to help) and 곱다 (gopda, to be lovely) give 도와요 (dowayo) and 고와요 (gowayo), not *도워요. Everything else about them is normal (도우면, 도운).

Most ㅂ-final descriptive verbs are in this class; most ㅂ-final action verbs are not.

Step 4 - ㄷ 불규칙: the ㄷ becomes ㄹ

In front of a vowel the final ㄷ is rewritten as ㄹ, and then the ending attaches normally:

듣 + 어요 -> 들 + 어요 -> 들어요

This class is small - 듣다 (deutda, to listen), 걷다 (geotda, to walk), 묻다 (mutda, to ask) - and it is surrounded by regular look-alikes (받다, 닫다, 믿다) that you simply have to keep apart.

Step 5 - ㅅ 불규칙: the ㅅ disappears and nothing contracts

The ㅅ is deleted, but the two vowels left behind do not merge. This is the part learners get wrong:

짓 + 어요 -> 지 + 어요 -> 지어요 (never *져요) 낫 + 아요 -> 나 + 아요 -> 나아요 (never *나요)

Step 6 - ㄹ 탈락: the ㄹ runs away from ㄴ, ㅂ, ㅅ

A ㄹ-final stem is regular in front of a vowel (살아요, 살았어요), but it deletes the ㄹ in front of an ending beginning with ㄴ, ㅂ or ㅅ. On top of that, a ㄹ stem never takes the 으 of an -(으)- ending - it behaves like a vowel stem:

살 + -ㅂ니다 -> 삽니다 - 살 + -세요 -> 사세요 - 살 + -는 -> 사는 - 살 + -니까 -> 사니까

But 으-less does not mean ㄹ-less. In -(으)면 the ending really starts with ㅁ, which is not ㄴ/ㅂ/ㅅ, so the ㄹ survives and only the 으 is dropped: 살면 (salmyeon), 만들면 (mandeulmyeon). This is not an irregularity you memorise word by word - every ㄹ stem does it.

Forms & patterns

The trigger table - which ending class fires which change:

ㅂ 불규칙 - and the regular ㅂ stems underneath:

ㄷ 불규칙 - and its three regular look-alikes:

ㅅ 불규칙 - and its three regular look-alikes:

ㄹ 탈락 - there are no exceptions and no regular look-alikes:

Two details worth pinning down. First, a ㄹ stem takes -ㅂ니다, not -습니다, exactly like a vowel stem: 삽니다, never *살습니다. Second, the whole 살다 family in one line: 살아요 - 삽니다 - 사세요 - 사는 - 사니까 - 삽시다 (sapsida) - 살면 - 살고.

Examples

• 오늘은 날씨가 정말 더워요. (Oneureun nalssiga jeongmal deowoyo.) - Today the weather is really hot.
• 이 김치는 너무 매워요. (I gimchineun neomu maewoyo.) - This kimchi is too spicy.
• 저는 매일 음악을 들어요. (Jeoneun maeil eumageul deureoyo.) - I listen to music every day.
• 아침마다 공원에서 걸어요. (Achimmada gongwoneseo georeoyo.) - I walk in the park every morning.
• 저는 매일 편지를 받아요. (Jeoneun maeil pyeonjireul badayo.) - I receive a letter every day.
• 아버지가 집을 지어요. (Abeojiga jibeul jieoyo.) - My father is building a house.
• 감기가 다 나았어요. (Gamgiga da naasseoyo.) - My cold has completely gone.
• 저는 서울에 살아요. (Jeoneun Seoure sarayo.) - I live in Seoul.
• 동생이 라면을 만들어요. (Dongsaengi ramyeoneul mandeureoyo.) - My younger sibling is making ramyeon.
• 집이 학교에서 멀어요. (Jibi hakgyoeseo meoreoyo.) - My house is far from school.

Common mistakes

• 날씨가 덥어요. (Nalssiga deobeoyo.) -> 날씨가 더워요. (Nalssiga deowoyo.) - 덥다 is ㅂ-irregular, so the ㅂ becomes 우 before a vowel. Only regular ㅂ stems keep it: 입다 -> 입어요.
• 음악을 듣어요. (Eumageul deudeoyo.) -> 음악을 들어요. (Eumageul deureoyo.) - ㄷ-irregular: the ㄷ is rewritten as ㄹ in front of a vowel. The look-alike 받다 does not change - 받아요, never *발아요.
• 집을 져요. (Jibeul jyeoyo.) -> 집을 지어요. (Jibeul jieoyo.) - After a ㅅ-irregular stem the vowels never contract. Same for 낫다: 나아요, not *나요.
• 서울에 살습니다. (Seoure salseumnida.) -> 서울에 삽니다. (Seoure samnida.) - A ㄹ stem drops its ㄹ before ㅂ and then takes -ㅂ니다 like a vowel stem.
• 김밥을 만들으세요. (Gimbabeul mandeureuseyo.) -> 김밥을 만드세요. (Gimbabeul mandeuseyo.) - A ㄹ stem never takes the 으 of -(으)세요, and the ㄹ itself falls out before the ㅅ.

Tips

• The ㄹ mnemonic: ㄴ, ㅂ, ㅅ. The ㄹ is shy and runs away from those three consonants - and it never lets an 으 stand next to it. Everything else (vowels, -고, -지만, -면) leaves it alone.
• Guess by word class, then verify. Almost every ㅂ-final adjective is irregular (덥다, 춥다, 맵다, 쉽다, 어렵다, 무겁다, 가깝다), while ㅂ-final action verbs are usually regular (입다, 잡다, 씹다). 돕다 and 굽다 (grill, roast) are the well-known action-verb exceptions - 도와요 (not *도워요) and 구워요.
• Watch the twin 묻다. 묻다 meaning to ask is irregular (물어요), but 묻다 meaning to bury is regular (묻어요). Same spelling, different class - the sentence tells you which.
• Learn the 해요 form, not the rule. A good dictionary prints the 아/어 form beside the entry. If you store 덥다 as the pair “덥다 - 더워요” from day one, you never have to run the rule at speaking speed.

In short

To say A and B between two nouns, hang a linker on the FIRST noun: 와/과 (neutral, written), 하고 (everyday spoken), or (이)랑 (casual). Use (이)나 for A or B. And for X’s Y, the possessive is 의 - but in speech Koreans mostly just put the two nouns side by side: 친구 집 (a friend’s house), no particle at all.

The rule

Step 1 - Linkers join NOUNS, not sentences

Noun + 와/과 (또는 하고 / (이)랑) + Noun. These three all mean and, and they attach with no space to the first noun. Do not reach for 그리고 (geurigo) here - 그리고 joins whole sentences, never two nouns. *커피 그리고 차 is not how you say coffee and tea; 커피와 차 is.

Step 2 - Pick the register, then pick the allomorph

The three and-words differ only in feel:

• 와/과 - neutral, the written and formal choice. It has two shapes: 와 after a vowel, 과 after a 받침.
• 하고 - the everyday spoken word. One shape only, after any noun: 커피하고, 빵하고. When in doubt, this one is always safe.
• (이)랑 - casual, friendly. 랑 after a vowel, 이랑 after a 받침.

The allomorph is chosen by the noun the linker sits on. 커피 ends in a vowel, so 커피와; 빵 ends in a 받침, so 빵과.

Step 3 - (이)나 = or

Same slot, same allomorph rule, different meaning: (이)나 offers a choice between nouns. 나 after a vowel, 이나 after a 받침.

• 커피나 차 주세요. (Keopina cha juseyo.) - Give me coffee or tea.
• 물이나 주스 있어요? (Murina juseu isseoyo?) - Do you have water or juice?

(To say or between whole clauses you need -거나 - a different tool, in lesson 23.)

Step 4 - 와/과 also means with after certain verbs

A small group of predicates is inherently two-sided, and they take 과/와 (or 하고 / (이)랑) instead of the object 을/를: 같다 (be the same), 다르다 (be different), 비슷하다 (be similar), 결혼하다 (marry). Think of it as the same AS, different FROM. 만나다 (meet) fits the same with pattern - 친구와 만나요 (meet with a friend) - but, unlike the others, it also takes a plain object, so 친구를 만나요 is equally correct.

• 친구하고 같이 영화를 봤어요. (Chinguhago gachi yeonghwareul bwasseoyo.) - I watched a movie with a friend. (같이 = together, often paired with the with noun.)
• 그 사람과 결혼해요. (Geu saramgwa gyeolhonhaeyo.) - [She] is marrying that person.

Step 5 - Possession: 의, and why you rarely say it

X의 Y = X’s Y: 한국의 문화 (Hangugui munhwa, Korea’s culture). The particle is written 의, and the standard allows it to be read either [의] or [에] (e) - in practice almost everyone says [에]. In real speech, though, Koreans usually drop it and just stack the two nouns:

친구 집 (a friend’s house), 학교 앞 (in front of the school), 한국 사람 (a Korean person).

Keep 의 for careful or written possession (한국의 미래, Korea’s future), and drop it in everyday talk. Note that a fixed compound like 한국 사람 never takes 의 at all.

Step 6 - The pronoun contractions, and 우리 집

Pronoun + 의 contracts, obligatorily in normal speech:

나의 -> 내, 저의 -> 제, 너의 -> 네.

So my friend (polite) is 제 친구 (je chingu), not 저의 친구. One idiom overrides all of this: for your own home, family or country Korean says 우리 (our), not 내/제 - 우리 집 (my/our house), 우리 엄마, 우리나라 (one word - it is a single dictionary entry). *나의 집 sounds off.

Forms & patterns

The four linkers - allomorph by environment:

Verbs that take 과/와 (the with / comparison pattern):

Possessive 의 vs the bare noun+noun (the spoken norm):

Pronoun + 의 contractions (obligatory):

Examples

• 커피와 차를 좋아해요. (Keopiwa chareul joahaeyo.) - I like coffee and tea.
• 빵과 우유를 샀어요. (Ppanggwa uyureul sasseoyo.) - I bought bread and milk.
• 친구하고 같이 영화를 봤어요. (Chinguhago gachi yeonghwareul bwasseoyo.) - I watched a movie with a friend.
• 저는 동생이랑 살아요. (Jeoneun dongsaengirang sarayo.) - I live with my younger sibling.
• 커피나 차 주세요. (Keopina cha juseyo.) - Give me coffee or tea.
• 물이나 주스 있어요? (Murina juseu isseoyo?) - Do you have water or juice?
• 이것은 저것과 달라요. (Igeoseun jeogeotgwa dallayo.) - This is different from that.
• 한국의 문화를 좋아해요. (Hangugui munhwareul joahaeyo.) - I like Korean culture.
• 우리 집은 학교 앞에 있어요. (Uri jibeun hakgyo ape isseoyo.) - Our house is in front of the school.
• 제 친구는 미국 사람이에요. (Je chinguneun Miguk saramieyo.) - My friend is American.

Common mistakes

• 커피과 차 (keopigwa cha) -> 커피와 차 (keopiwa cha) - 커피 ends in a vowel, so the linker is 와, not 과.
• 빵와 우유 (ppangwa uyu) -> 빵과 우유 (ppanggwa uyu) - 빵 ends in a 받침 (ㅇ), so it must be 과. Same split runs through (이)랑 and (이)나: 빵이랑, 빵이나.
• 커피 그리고 차 주세요. (Keopi geurigo cha juseyo.) -> 커피와 차 주세요. (Keopiwa cha juseyo.) - 그리고 links sentences, not nouns. Between two nouns use 와/과, 하고 or (이)랑.
• 그 사람을 결혼해요. (Geu sarameul gyeolhonhaeyo.) -> 그 사람과 결혼해요. (Geu saramgwa gyeolhonhaeyo.) - 결혼하다, 같다 and 다르다 pair with 과/와, never with the object 을/를 (결혼하다 takes no object at all).
• 나의 집이 좋아요. (Naui jibi joayo.) -> 우리 집이 좋아요. (Uri jibi joayo.) - For your own home, family or country Korean uses 우리 (our), not 나의/내: 우리 집, 우리 엄마, 우리나라.

Tips

• A register ladder for and: 와/과 > 하고 > (이)랑. 와/과 is the tidy written pair (with allomorphs); 하고 is the one-shape workhorse of everyday speech; (이)랑 is what you use with close friends. If you are unsure, 하고 never sounds wrong.
• Look at the FIRST noun to choose the allomorph. 와/과, (이)랑 and (이)나 all agree with the noun they attach to, not the second one: 커피와 빵 but 빵과 커피, 물이나 커피 but 커피나 물.
• 의 is written but mostly silent. It is normally pronounced [에] (e) - the standard permits both [의] and [에] - and in speech it usually disappears entirely: 친구 집, 학교 앞, 한국 사람. Save it for careful or written possession, and remember the three contractions 내 / 제 / 네.
• (이)나 = or, (이)랑 = and. They attach identically, so the only thing to track is the meaning: 커피나 차 = pick one; 커피랑 차 = both together.

In short

Korean runs two number systems at once. Native numbers (하나, 둘, 셋 …) count hours, ages and things through a counter word; Sino-Korean numbers (일, 이, 삼 …) do minutes, money, dates and anything large. The whole skill is picking the right set for each counter - and remembering that on the clock the hour is native (세 시, se si) but the minute is Sino (삼십 분, samsip bun).

The rule

Step 1 - Two number systems, and Sino counts by ten-thousands

Sino-Korean numbers are borrowed from Chinese: 일 이 삼 사 오 육 칠 팔 구 십. They stack cleanly - 23 is 이십삼 (isipsam, literally two-ten-three), 45 is 사십오 (sasibo). The higher units are 백 (baek, 100), 천 (cheon, 1,000), 만 (man, 10,000) and 억 (eok, 100,000,000). Korean groups large numbers by 만 (ten-thousands), not by thousands, so 100,000 is 십만 (simman, ten 만), 1,000,000 is 백만 (baengman), and you never build a separate “hundred-thousand” word. Sino numbers do minutes, money, phone numbers, dates, floors, bus routes and any large count.

Step 2 - Native numbers, and the five truncations before a counter

Native numbers run 하나 둘 셋 넷 다섯 여섯 일곱 여덟 아홉 열, then the tens 스물 (20), 서른 (30), 마흔 (40), 쉰 (50), 예순 (60). They fade out around 100, where Korean switches back to Sino 백. Five of them lose their tail the moment a counter follows: 하나->한, 둘->두, 셋->세, 넷->네, 스물->스무. So it is 한 개, 두 명, 세 시, 네 살, 스무 살 - never *하나 개. Only these five change; 다섯, 여섯, 일곱 and the rest stay as they are (다섯 개, 여섯 명).

Step 3 - Counters, and the pattern that carries them

You cannot count a Korean noun bare - you count it through a counter (단위명사), in the order:

Noun + Number + Counter -> 사과 세 개 (sagwa se gae, three apples), 커피 두 잔 (keopi du jan, two coffees).

The noun comes first, then the number, then the counter, all with spaces. Each counter is locked to one number system: 개, 명, 마리, 장, 권, 잔, 병, 살, 번, 시간 and clock-hour 시 all take native numbers; clock-minute 분, plus 년, 월, 일 and 원 (won), take Sino numbers. The full assignment is in Forms & patterns.

Step 4 - The clock: native hour, Sino minute

This split is the classic beginner trap. The hour is a native number + 시 (si), the minute is a Sino number + 분 (bun):

native + 시 + Sino + 분 -> 세 시 삼십 분 (se si samsip bun, 3:30).

반 (ban, half) replaces the minutes: 세 시 반 (se si ban, half past three). Add 오전 (ojeon, a.m.) or 오후 (ohu, p.m.) in front: 오후 다섯 시 (ohu daseot si, 5 p.m.). A time point takes the particle 에: 두 시에 (du sie, at two) - but note that a duration does not (Step 6).

Step 5 - Dates: all Sino, with two spelling quirks

Year, month and day are year 년 + month 월 + day 일, every part a Sino number: 이천이십육 년 칠월 십팔 일 (2026, July, the 18th). Two months change shape to smooth the sound: 6월 is 유월 (yuwol, not *육월) and 10월 is 시월 (siwol, not *십월); the others are regular (일월, 이월, 삼월 …). Weekdays are a day-word + 요일 (yoil): 월요일, 화요일, 수요일, 목요일, 금요일, 토요일, 일요일. To ask the date, use 몇 월 며칠 (myeot wol myeochil, what month, what day) - and note the word for “what day of the month” is spelled 며칠, never *몇 일.

Step 6 - Duration

For how long, the counters are 시간 (hours, native), 일 (days, Sino), 주일 (weeks, Sino), 개월 (months, Sino) or its native twin 달, and 년 (years, Sino): 세 시간 (se sigan, 3 hours), 십 일 (sip il, 10 days), 삼 개월 = 세 달 (sam gaewol = se dal, 3 months), 이 년 (i nyeon, 2 years). A stretch of time is wrapped with 동안 (dongan, for, during), which takes a space: 세 시간 동안 (se sigan dongan, for three hours). Do not put 에 on a duration - *세 시간에 공부해요 is wrong.

Step 7 - Range and frequency particles

Four short markers ride on the number words. 부터, 까지 and 마다 are particles and 씩 is a suffix, so those four attach with no space; 동안 is a noun, so it keeps its space:

• N + 부터 … N + 까지 - from … to: 한 시부터 세 시까지 (han sibuteo se sikkaji, from 1 to 3), 월요일부터 금요일까지.
• N + 동안 - for a duration: 이 주일 동안 (i juil dongan, for two weeks).
• N + 마다 - every: 날마다 (nalmada, every day), 주말마다 (jumalmada, every weekend).
• N + 씩 - each, apiece: 하나씩 (hanassik, one each), 조금씩 (jogeumssik, little by little).

Forms & patterns

The two systems, 1-10 and beyond:

Truncation before a counter (only these five):

Counters and the number system each takes:

Assembling a time and a date:

Examples

• 사과 세 개 주세요. (Sagwa se gae juseyo.) - Please give me three apples.
• 교실에 학생이 스무 명 있어요. (Gyosire haksaengi seumu myeong isseoyo.) - There are twenty students in the classroom.
• 지금 몇 시예요? (Jigeum myeot siyeyo?) - What time is it now?
• 지금 세 시 반이에요. (Jigeum se si banieyo.) - It’s half past three now.
• 회의는 오후 두 시 삼십 분에 시작해요. (Hoeuineun ohu du si samsip bune sijakaeyo.) - The meeting starts at 2:30 p.m.
• 오늘은 유월 십오 일이에요. (Oneureun yuwol sibo irieyo.) - Today is June 15th.
• 생일이 며칠이에요? (Saengiri myeochirieyo?) - What date is your birthday?
• 저는 스물다섯 살이에요. (Jeoneun seumuldaseot sarieyo.) - I’m twenty-five years old.
• 월요일부터 금요일까지 일해요. (Woryoilbuteo geumyoilkkaji ilhaeyo.) - I work from Monday to Friday.
• 세 시간 동안 공부했어요. (Se sigan dongan gongbuhaesseoyo.) - I studied for three hours.

Common mistakes

• 오 살이에요. (O sarieyo.) -> 다섯 살이에요. (Daseot sarieyo.) - Age with 살 takes native numbers, so five years old is 다섯 살, never the Sino *오 살.
• 둘 개 주세요. (Dul gae juseyo.) -> 두 개 주세요. (Du gae juseyo.) - 둘 truncates to 두 the instant a counter follows; the same goes for 하나->한, 셋->세, 넷->네, 스물->스무.
• 삼 시 삼십 분이에요. (Sam si samsip bunieyo.) -> 세 시 삼십 분이에요. (Se si samsip bunieyo.) - On the clock the hour is native (세 시) but the minute is Sino (삼십 분). Do not run the whole time in one system.
• 육월 십오 일이에요. (Yugwol sibo irieyo.) -> 유월 십오 일이에요. (Yuwol sibo irieyo.) - June is the irregular 유월 with the ㄱ dropped; October is likewise 시월, not *십월.
• 오늘은 몇 일이에요? (Oneureun myeot irieyo?) -> 오늘은 며칠이에요? (Oneureun myeochirieyo?) - “What date” is one fixed word, spelled 며칠. The spelling *몇 일 does not exist.

Tips

• Two feels, one rule of thumb. Native for things you touch and small close counts - people, cups, animals, ages, and clock hours; Sino for measured or labelled numbers - money, dates, phone numbers, and clock minutes. When in doubt on the clock, chant “hour native, minute Sino”.
• 스물 only shrinks to 스무 right before a counter. So 20 alone is 스물, 20 years old is 스무 살, but 25 keeps the full form: 스물다섯 살 (the counter follows 다섯, which never truncates).
• 분 is two different words. As a native-number counter it is the honorific for a person - 한 분, 두 분 (one/two people, politely); as a Sino-number counter it is minutes - 십 분, 삼십 분. Context and the number system tell them apart.
• Counters glue in the order Noun + Number + Counter. It is 커피 두 잔, not *두 잔 커피 and not *두 커피. English “two coffees” reorders; Korean keeps the noun in front and hangs the count behind it.

In short

Use 에게 (written), 한테 (spoken) or 께 (honorific) to mark the person something is given, sent, taught or said to. Add -서 (에게서/한테서), or (으)로부터, to mark the person or place it comes from. An inanimate recipient - a school, a plant, a company - takes plain 에 instead.

The rule

Korean glues the “to” and “from” information onto the end of the noun, with no space. Which particle you use depends on two things: who is receiving (register + honour) and whether the recipient is a living thing.

Step 1 - Who receives it: 에게 / 한테 / 께

These three all mean to (a person) and all attach identically after a vowel or a 받침 - there is no allomorph pair here. They differ only in register:

• 한테 - everyday spoken Korean. This is your default. 친구한테 (chinguhante, to a friend).
• 에게 - the written / neutral equivalent. Same meaning, more formal. 친구에게 (chinguege).
• 께 - the honorific form, for someone you look up to. 선생님께 (seonsaengnimkke, to the teacher).

Step 2 - The animacy gate

Only a living recipient (a person or an animal) takes 에게/한테/께. A thing, place or organisation takes the location particle 에 from lesson 9:

• 친구한테 전화해요. (Chinguhante jeonhwahaeyo.) - I call my friend. (a person)
• 학교에 전화해요. (Hakgyoe jeonhwahaeyo.) - I call the school. (an organisation -> 에)
• 화분에 물을 줘요. (Hwabune mureul jwoyo.) - I water the plant. (a plant cannot receive -> 에)

Step 3 - 께 travels in a pack

When you honour the recipient with 께, the giving verb also changes: 주다 (juda, give) becomes the humble 드리다 (deurida), which lifts up the person receiving. -(으)시- does not join in here: that suffix honours the subject, and in these sentences the subject is you. It shows up only when the honoured person is the one acting - and then the subject is marked 께서, not 께 (lesson 22).

• 선생님께 선물을 드려요. (Seonsaengnimkke seonmureul deuryeoyo.) - I give the teacher a present.

Never honour yourself: when you are the one receiving, the verb is plain 주다, never 드리다.

Step 4 - Where it comes from: add 서

The source particles are just the dative ones with -서 stuck on: 에게 -> 에게서, 한테 -> 한테서. The honorific source is plain 께 (it takes no 서). For a more formal source, or a place/organisation, use (으)로부터, which picks its shape exactly like (으)로 (vowel/ㄹ -> 로부터, other 받침 -> 으로부터).

• 친구한테서 편지를 받았어요. (Chinguhanteseo pyeonjireul badasseoyo.) - I got a letter from my friend.
• 회사로부터 이메일을 받았어요. (Hoesarobuteo imeireul badasseoyo.) - I got an email from the company.

In casual speech people often drop the 서 and let 한테 cover both directions, so 친구한테 받았어요 is also fine for received from a friend.

Step 5 - Verbs that license these particles

The dative/source slot is opened by transfer and communication verbs: 주다 (give), 드리다 (give, humble), 보내다 (send), 전화하다 (call), 가르치다 (teach), 물어보다 (ask), 말하다 (tell). The ones to watch are 배우다 (learn) and 받다 (receive), which take the source side (from whom).

Step 6 - Stacking 만 / 도 / 는

Focus particles attach after the dative particle, never before it: Noun + 한테 + 만/도/는.

• 친구한테만 전화해요. (Chinguhanteman jeonhwahaeyo.) - I only call my friend.
• 저한테도 보내요. (Jeohantedo bonaeyo.) - Send it to me too.

Forms & patterns

Dative - marking who receives (to):

에게, 한테 and 께 do not change shape after a vowel vs a 받침 - they attach unchanged.

Source - marking where it comes from (from):

Animacy: can it hear you?

Verbs that open the slot:

Examples

• 친구한테 선물을 줘요. (Chinguhante seonmureul jwoyo.) - I give a present to my friend.
• 선생님께 이메일을 보내요. (Seonsaengnimkke imeireul bonaeyo.) - I send an email to the teacher.
• 어머니께 꽃을 드려요. (Eomeonikke kkocheul deuryeoyo.) - I give flowers to my mother.
• 친구한테 전화해요. (Chinguhante jeonhwahaeyo.) - I call my friend.
• 학교에 전화해요. (Hakgyoe jeonhwahaeyo.) - I call the school.
• 선생님께 한국어를 배워요. (Seonsaengnimkke Hangugeoreul baewoyo.) - I learn Korean from the teacher.
• 친구한테서 편지를 받았어요. (Chinguhanteseo pyeonjireul badasseoyo.) - I received a letter from my friend.
• 회사로부터 이메일을 받았어요. (Hoesarobuteo imeireul badasseoyo.) - I received an email from the company.
• 친구한테만 비밀을 말해요. (Chinguhanteman bimireul malhaeyo.) - I only tell the secret to my friend.
• 저한테도 사진을 보내요. (Jeohantedo sajineul bonaeyo.) - Send the photo to me too.

Common mistakes

• 회사한테 이메일을 보내요. (Hoesahante imeireul bonaeyo.) -> 회사에 이메일을 보내요. (Hoesae imeireul bonaeyo.) - A company or a school is inanimate, so it takes 에, not 한테/에게. Only people and animals take the dative particles.
• 할머니한테 선물을 줘요. (Halmeonihante seonmureul jwoyo.) -> 할머니께 선물을 드려요. (Halmeonikke seonmureul deuryeoyo.) - When you honour the recipient, the particle becomes 께 and 주다 becomes the humble 드리다. The two move together.
• 친구가 저한테 드려요. (Chinguga jeohante deuryeoyo.) -> 친구가 저한테 줘요. (Chinguga jeohante jwoyo.) - 드리다 elevates the person receiving, so using it when you are the receiver honours yourself. When you are the recipient, the verb is plain 주다.
• 친구에서 편지를 받았어요. (Chingueseo pyeonjireul badasseoyo.) -> 친구한테서 편지를 받았어요. (Chinguhanteseo pyeonjireul badasseoyo.) - 에서 is a place source (한국에서 왔어요). A person source is 한테서 / 에게서 (or 께).
• 친구만한테 전화해요. (Chingumanhante jeonhwahaeyo.) -> 친구한테만 전화해요. (Chinguhanteman jeonhwahaeyo.) - The dative particle comes first, then 만/도/는 stacks on after it: 한테 + 만, never 만 + 한테.

Tips

• 한테 to talk, 에게 to write. They are the same particle in two registers - use 한테 in conversation and messages, 에게 in essays and formal writing. Beginners can safely live on 한테.
• If it can hear you, it takes 한테. A friend, a teacher, a dog can receive, so they take 한테/에게/께. A school, a bank, a flowerpot cannot, so they fall back to 에. This one question settles almost every case.
• Source = dative + 서. 한테 -> 한테서, 에게 -> 에게서. The honorific 께 is the exception: it stays 께 for both to and from and never adds 서.
• 께 is a package deal. Honored recipient -> 께 + 드리다 (not 주다). Do not tack -(으)시- onto 드려요: -(으)시- honours the subject, and the subject here is you. The full 주다/드리다 contrast is covered again in lesson 33.

In short

To tell someone politely to do something, attach -(으)세요 to the verb stem: -세요 after a vowel, -으세요 after a 받침. To tell them not to, use -지 마세요. For a warmer, favour-asking tone, use -아/어 주세요 (please do it for me). Only action verbs take commands - you cannot command an adjective.

The rule

Step 1 - The polite command is -(으)세요, chosen by the 받침

Verb stem + -(으)세요

The ending has two shapes, picked by the last sound of the stem - exactly the vowel-vs-받침 split you already know from 은/는 and -(으)면:

• stem ends in a vowel -> -세요: 가다 -> 가세요 (gaseyo, please go)
• stem ends in any 받침 -> -으세요: 읽다 -> 읽으세요 (ilgeuseyo, please read), 앉다 -> 앉으세요 (anjeuseyo, please sit)

Because the 받침 form inserts a vowel -으, it triggers irregular stems just like any vowel-initial ending: 듣다 -> 들으세요 (deureuseyo, please listen), not *듣으세요.

Step 2 - ㄹ-stems drop their ㄹ

A stem ending in ㄹ loses the ㄹ before -세요 and takes the vowel form, never *-으세요:

• 살다 -> 사세요 (saseyo, please live; the same shape as 사다 buy -> 사세요, so context decides which)
• 만들다 -> 만드세요 (mandeuseyo, please make it)
• 팔다 -> 파세요 (paseyo, please sell)

This is the same ㄹ-deletion you met in lesson 17: ㄹ falls out in front of ㅅ, ㄴ and ㅂ.

Step 3 - Where -(으)세요 comes from, and why it is polite

-(으)세요 is the subject-honorific -(으)시- (lesson 22) fused with 해요체 -어요: -(으)시- + -어요 -> -(으)세요. So the ending does two jobs at once - it is polite to the listener and it raises the subject you are addressing. This is exactly why you never point it at yourself: *저는 앉으세요 is wrong. Command forms are always about the other person.

Step 4 - Softer and more deferential requests

A bare -(으)세요 is a clear instruction. Two patterns soften it:

• -아/어 주세요 - do it for me, as a favour. Build the 아/어 form (lesson 10) and add 주세요 (juseyo, from 주다 give), with a space: 기다려 주세요 (gidaryeo juseyo, please wait for me), 읽어 주세요 (ilgeo juseyo, please read it to me). A few of these have fused into single dictionary words and so lose the space - 도와주세요 (dowajuseyo, please help me), from the headword 도와주다. Treat it as a fixed pattern for now; the full benefactive machine is lesson 33.
• -(으)시겠어요? - the most deferential, a would you…? offer: 앉으시겠어요? (anjeusigesseoyo?, would you like to sit?).