In short

Use a/an for one of many (new or general), the for the specific or known one, and no article (zero) for general plurals and uncountable nouns. Choose a or an by the first sound of the next word, not its spelling.

The rule

a / an - the indefinite article. It means “one” of something, so it only goes with singular countable nouns. Use it for:

• the first mention of something: I saw a dog.
• classifying or jobs: She is a doctor. It’s a good idea.
• per / each with time and price: twice a week, 60 km an hour.

Choose a or an by the sound that follows:

the - the definite article. Use it when the speaker and listener both know which one:

• something already mentioned or known: I saw a dog. The dog was big.
• unique things: the sun, the moon, the sky, the world.
• the only one in this situation: Close the door. Pass the salt.
• superlatives and ordinals: the best, the biggest, the first, the third.

zero article (no word at all). Use no article for:

• general plural nouns: Dogs are loyal. Books are useful.
• uncountable nouns in general: Water is wet. Time is money.
• most proper names, languages, meals: I visited Spain. She speaks Italian. We had lunch.
• fixed phrases: go to bed / work / school, by car / bus, at home, in bed.

some works like a “plural a/an” - one or more, not specific: I bought some apples. It is also used with uncountables: some water. You learn it fully in Quantifiers.

Forms & patterns

A simple way to choose:

Examples

Common mistakes

• She is doctor. -> She is a doctor. - singular jobs need a/an.
• I have an university degree. -> I have a university degree. - “university” starts with a yoo sound, so a.
• I waited for you a hour ago. -> I waited for you an hour ago. - silent h, vowel sound, so an.
• The dogs are loyal animals. -> Dogs are loyal animals. - general plural takes no article.
• Let’s go to the bed. -> Let’s go to bed. - fixed phrase, no article.

Tips

• Listen, don’t look: say the next word out loud. Hour sounds like “our” (vowel) -> an; university sounds like “you-” (consonant) -> a.
• If you can put the + which one? and answer it, you are right to use the.
• General truths use no article: Money can’t buy happiness. Add the only when you mean a specific amount: the money on the table.
• Singular countable nouns almost never stand alone - they need a/an, the, this, my, etc.

In short

Be is the most common verb in English. In the present it has three forms - am, is, are - and you choose the form by the subject.

The rule

Be links a subject to information about it: who or what it is, how it feels, where it is, its age, job, price, or the weather.

It has three present forms:

In everyday speech and writing we usually use contractions (the short forms): I’m, you’re, he’s.

To make a negative, add not after the verb: I am not, he is not, we are not. There are two short forms for is not and are not - isn’t / ‘s not and aren’t / ‘re not. (But I am not has only one contraction: I’m not.)

To make a yes/no question, put the verb before the subject (this is called inversion): Am I…? Is she…? Are you…?

Forms & patterns

Positive (full and short):

Negative (two short forms for is/are):

Questions and short answers:

In short answers, don’t contract a positive answer: say Yes, I am. - never Yes, I’m.

Examples

Common mistakes

• I am teacher -> I am a teacher - jobs need a/an (see articles).
• He are tall -> He is tall - he/she/it always takes is.
• I no am ready -> I ‘m not ready - put not after the verb, no don’t.
• Yes, I’m. -> Yes, I am. - never use a contraction in a short positive answer.
• I have 30 years -> I am 30 (years old) - use be for age, not have.

Tips

• Memorise the three pairs as a chant: I am, he is, you are - everything else follows.
• For feelings and states, English says be: I’m hungry / cold / afraid / right - even where your language might use have.
• He’s can mean he is (here) or he has (other lessons). At A1, with descriptions, it means he is.
• Use a question to check, then answer short: Are you OK? - Yes, I am.

In short

A pronoun is a small word that replaces a noun, so you don’t repeat it. Use a subject pronoun (I, you, he…) before the verb, and an object pronoun (me, you, him…) after a verb or a preposition.

The rule

Every English sentence needs a subject. Instead of saying the same noun again, we use a pronoun.

• The subject does the action and comes before the verb: She works here.
• The object receives the action and comes after the verb or a preposition: I know her; Come with us.

I is always written with a capital letter, anywhere in the sentence.

Use it for things, animals, the weather, the time, and distance:

• It’s raining. - It’s five o’clock. - It’s ten kilometres to the city.

When you don’t know a person’s gender, or it doesn’t matter, you can use singular they / them:

• Someone called you. They left a message.

In formal or general statements, one can mean “people in general”: One should be polite. This is formal - in everyday English we usually say you instead.

Important: never drop the subject in English. A verb almost always needs a subject pronoun (or a noun) in front of it.

Forms & patterns

Position in the sentence:

Examples

Common mistakes

• Is raining. -> It is raining. - English needs a subject; add it.
• Is a problem. -> There is a problem. / It is a problem. - don’t start a sentence with the bare verb.
• Me like pizza. -> I like pizza. - the subject must be a subject pronoun (I), not me.
• She loves he. -> She loves him. - after a verb, use the object pronoun (him).
• Come with I. -> Come with me. - after a preposition, use the object pronoun (me).

Tips

• Quick test: if the word does the action, use a subject pronoun (I, he, she…). If it receives the action or follows a preposition (to, for, with…), use an object pronoun (me, him, her…).
• Only you and it look the same as subject and object - all the others change form.
• I always wears a capital “hat”, even in the middle of a sentence: Yesterday I slept well.
• For weather, time, and distance, the subject is always it: It’s sunny. It’s late. It’s far.

In short

Use a possessive determiner (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) before a noun to say who owns it. Use a possessive pronoun (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs) alone, with no noun after it.

The rule

We have two sets of words for showing who something belongs to.

1. Possessive determiners always come before a noun:

2. Possessive pronouns stand alone. There is no noun after them, because they replace the noun:

Note: its has no possessive pronoun form, and his is the same in both groups.

Agreement is with the OWNER, not the thing owned. Choose the word by looking at who owns it:

• Anna loves her job. (Anna is female -> her)
• Tom loves his job. (Tom is male -> his)
• The dog wags its tail. (the dog is “it” -> its)

In many other languages the form matches the noun (the thing owned). In English it never does - only the owner matters.

its vs it’s. These sound the same but mean different things:

• its = possessive (belonging to it): The cat licked its paw.
• it’s = it is or it has: It’s cold today. / It’s stopped raining.

Quick test: if you can say “it is” or “it has”, write it’s (with the apostrophe). If not, write its.

whose asks or tells who owns something:

• Question: Whose is this? / Whose car is that?
• Relative: That’s the man whose dog barks all night.

Forms & patterns

Two useful patterns:

• a/an + noun + of + mine/yours/… = one of several: She is a friend of mine. (= one of my friends)
• Whose + noun + is this/are these? to ask about an owner: Whose keys are these? - They’re mine.

No apostrophe in hers, yours, its, ours, theirs. (The ‘s possessive on nouns - Anna’s job - was covered in Nouns: plurals & possessive ‘s.)

Examples

Common mistakes

• her car (when the owner is male) -> his car - match the owner, not the noun.
• The dog hurt it’s leg. -> its leg - possessive its has no apostrophe.
• Its a nice day. -> It’s a nice day - here it means “it is”, so use it’s.
• This book is your. -> This book is yours - the stand-alone form is yours.
• That is hers’ bag / a bag of her -> That is her bag / That is hers / a bag of hers - hers never takes an apostrophe, and it stands alone: use her before a noun, hers after of.

Tips

• One-line rule: determiner + noun (my book) vs pronoun alone (It’s mine).
• For its/it’s, say the sentence with “it is”. If it still makes sense, you need the apostrophe (it’s).
• The possessive pronouns hers, yours, its, ours, theirs never take an apostrophe - the apostrophe belongs only to it’s (= it is/has).
• The word you choose depends on the owner: he -> his, she -> her, it -> its, they -> their.

In short

Use this/that/these/those to point at things and say if they are near you or far from you. This and these mean near (here, now); that and those mean far (there, then, finished).

The rule

Demonstratives do two jobs:

1. Determiner - before a noun: this book, those cars.
2. Pronoun - alone, with no noun after it: This is nice. What are those?

They tell you two things at the same time:

• Number: singular or plural.
• Distance: near the speaker or far from the speaker.

When you use them with a noun, the noun follows directly: this apple, these apples, that man, those men. The form must match the noun’s number: singular noun -> this/that; plural noun -> these/those.

Common everyday uses:

• Pointing: Look at that bird! I like these shoes.
• Introducing people: This is my friend Sam. These are my parents.
• On the phone: Hello, this is Anna. Who’s that? (You say this for yourself, that for the other person.)
• Referring back to an idea you just said or heard: That’s a good idea. That’s why I’m tired.

To avoid repeating a noun, use one (singular) or ones (plural): I like this one. The red ones are mine. Not that one - this one.

Forms & patterns

Useful question forms:

• What’s this? / What’s that? (one thing)
• What are these? / What are those? (more than one thing)

Examples

Common mistakes

• I like these car. -> I like this car. - singular noun needs this/that, not these/those.
• Look at this birds. -> Look at these birds. - plural noun needs these/those.
• What is those? -> What are those? - plural demonstrative takes a plural verb.
• This is John. (on the phone, about the other person) -> Who’s that? - the person far away on the line is that, not this.
• I want the red one. (about many) -> I want the red ones. - use ones for plural.

Tips

• Memory hook: th-IS / th-ESE have an s/e sound for close; th-AT / th-OSE for things further away.
• Count first, then choose: one thing = this/that; more than one = these/those.
• On the phone, you are always this (This is Anna) and the other person is that (Who’s that?).
• Use that’s to react to ideas: That’s true. That’s why. That’s a good question.

In short

We use the present simple for habits, routines, permanent facts, and timetables. The verb stays in its base form, but with he / she / it we add -s (she works, he goes).

The rule

Use the present simple to talk about:

The big rule is subject-verb agreement: with he, she, it (and any singular name or thing), the verb takes -s/-es/-ies. With I, you, we, they the verb stays in the base form.

For negatives and questions we use the helper do / does. After do/does, the main verb is always in the base form (no extra -s).

Short answers reuse do/does:

Frequency adverbs (always, usually, often, sometimes, never) go before the main verb, but after the verb be: She always arrives early. / She is always late. (See lesson 11.)

Forms & patterns

Third-person -s spelling rules:

Pronunciation of the -s ending mirrors the plural -s (lesson 1):

Examples

Common mistakes

• He work here -> He works here - he/she/it needs -s.
• She doesn’t works -> She doesn’t work - after doesn’t use the base form.
• Do she like it? -> Does she like it? - use does for he/she/it.
• I am work every day -> I work every day - present simple has no am/is/are.
• She studys -> She studies - consonant + y becomes -ies.

Tips

• One -s per sentence: either the verb has it (She works) or the helper does (Does she work?), never both.
• After do, does, don’t, doesn’t, the main verb is always the plain base form.
• Frequency words answer “how often” and sit right before the main verb: I never smoke.
• Use present simple for general or repeated actions; for something happening right now, use the present continuous (lesson 8): I work here (job) vs. I am working now (this moment).

In short

We use the present continuous (am/is/are + verb-ing) for an action happening now or around now, and for a temporary situation. A small group of “stative” verbs (like, know, want…) are not normally used in this form.

The rule

Make the present continuous with the verb be (am / is / are) + the main verb with -ing:

We use it for:

• Now, at the moment of speaking: She’s reading a book right now.
• Around now (these days, not exactly this second): I’m studying for an exam this week.
• Temporary situations: He’s staying with friends until Friday.
• Changing situations: It’s getting dark. / Prices are rising.
• Future arrangements (a fixed plan, usually with a time word): I’m meeting Sam tomorrow.

Spelling of -ing. Most verbs just add -ing (play -> playing). But:

Negatives and questions are made by changing be (not the main verb):

Stative verbs. Some verbs describe a state, not an action, and are not normally used in the continuous: like, love, hate, want, need, know, understand, believe, mean, prefer, own, belong, seem, contain. Say I want / I know, NOT I am wanting / I am knowing.

A few verbs change meaning between simple and continuous:

Forms & patterns

Short answers: Yes, I am. / No, I’m not. - Yes, she is. / No, she isn’t. - Yes, they are. / No, they aren’t.

Examples

Common mistakes

• I am wanting tea. -> I want tea. - want is stative; use the present simple.
• She is knowing the answer. -> She knows the answer. - know is stative.
• He is runing fast. -> He is running fast. - double the consonant: run -> running.
• I am makeing dinner. -> I am making dinner. - drop the silent -e before -ing.
• Do you coming tonight? -> Are you coming tonight? - questions use be, not do.

Tips

• Ask “Is this happening now or temporarily?” -> continuous. “Is this a habit or always true?” -> present simple: I’m wearing a coat (now) vs I wear a coat in winter (habit).
• The main verb never changes its ending: only be moves for questions and negatives.
• For -ing spelling, the doubling rule needs one vowel + one consonant and stress on that syllable (so begin -> beginning, but open -> opening).
• Words like now, right now, at the moment, today, this week, look!, listen! often signal the present continuous.

In short

Use there is / there are to say that something exists or is in a place. Use there is for one thing (or an uncountable noun) and there are for two or more things.

The rule

There + be introduces something new. The real subject comes after the verb, and the verb agrees with that subject.

• There is + singular noun or uncountable noun: There is a book on the table. There is some milk.
• There are + plural noun: There are two cafes near my house.

We often add a place at the end (on the table, near my house, in the box), but it is not always needed: There is a problem.

Do not confuse there with it. There says that something exists. It identifies or refers back to a thing we already know.

Forms & patterns

Positive

Negative

Questions and short answers

We do not repeat the noun in the short answer: Yes, there is. (not Yes, there is a lift.)

With a list, the verb usually agrees with the first item:

• There is a pen and two books on the desk. (first item = a pen, singular)
• There are two books and a pen on the desk. (first item = two books, plural)

Contractions: there’s is very common in speech and writing. There’re (for there are) is heard in speech but is rare in writing - write there are in full.

Past (more in lesson 14): use there was (singular) and there were (plural): There was a party. There were many guests.

Examples

Common mistakes

• There are a book on the desk. -> There is a book on the desk. - one thing needs is.
• There is two cafes. -> There are two cafes. - plural needs are.
• It is a problem with the car. (to introduce it) -> There is a problem with the car. - use there to say something exists.
• There aren’t no seats. -> There aren’t any seats. / There are no seats. - one negative, not two.
• Yes, there is a lift. (as a short answer) -> Yes, there is. - do not repeat the noun.

Tips

• Look at the noun right after the verb: one thing or uncountable -> is; two or more -> are.
• There’s no and there isn’t a / there aren’t any mean the same; no sounds a little stronger.
• There = “it exists”; it = “I am talking about this thing”. If you can point to something already known, use it.
• For the past, just swap is/are for was/were - everything else stays the same.

In short

Adjectives describe nouns (a big house, a happy child). In English they never change for number or gender, and they usually go before the noun or after be/seem/look.

The rule

An adjective gives information about a noun: what it is like, its size, colour, age, and so on.

1. Adjectives never change form. There is no plural and no gender ending.

2. Two positions.

• Before a noun (attributive): a beautiful garden, an interesting book.
• After a linking verb (predicative) - be, seem, look, feel, get: The garden is beautiful. You look tired.

3. -ed vs -ing adjectives. This pair is easy to mix up.

• -ed = how a person feels: I am bored / tired / interested.
• -ing = the thing that causes the feeling: a boring film / tiring day / interesting book.

So: The film was boring, so I was bored. (The film causes it; I feel it.)

4. Order of adjectives. When you use several adjectives before a noun, English puts them in a fixed order:

Opinion - Size - Age - Shape - Colour - Origin - Material - Purpose - noun.

Example: a lovely little old round brown French wooden box.

You rarely use that many. Two or three is normal: a nice big garden, a small black bag.

Use a comma only between adjectives of the same type (two opinions): a cheap, ugly chair. No comma between different types: a big red ball (not a big, red ball).

Forms & patterns

Examples

Common mistakes

• two reds cars -> two red cars - adjectives never take a plural -s.
• The film was so bored. -> The film was so boring. - the film is the cause, so use -ing.
• I am very boring in class. -> I am very bored in class. - to say how you feel, use -ed.
• a red big ball -> a big red ball - size comes before colour.
• She speaks very good. -> She speaks very well. - a verb needs an adverb, not an adjective (see Lesson 11).

Tips

• Memory hook for order: OSASCOMP (Opinion, Size, Age, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material, Purpose).
• -ed for the person who feels, -ing for the thing that makes you feel it.
• If you can put a noun after the word, it is an adjective: a happy day (adjective + noun).
• Don’t worry about long adjective strings - in real speech two adjectives are usually enough.

In short

An adverb tells us how, how often, how much, when, or where something happens. Many come from an adjective + -ly (quick -> quickly), and frequency words like always and never go before the main verb but after be.

The rule

Adverbs add information to a verb (and degree adverbs to an adjective). There are a few useful types.

1. Adverbs of manner (how?) - usually adjective + -ly.

Some are irregular and do not take -ly:

Careful: hardly is a different word meaning almost not: I hardly know him. (= I almost don’t know him).

2. Adverbs of frequency (how often?) - always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, never. Position:

• Before the main verb: I always walk to work.
• After the verb be: She is always late.
• After an auxiliary / have: I have never been there.

100% always > usually > often > sometimes > rarely > never 0%

3. Adverbs of degree (how much?) - very, really, too, quite, a bit. They go before the adjective: very good, really happy, too small, quite cold, a bit tired. Too means “more than is good”: This coffee is too hot (= I can’t drink it).

4. Adverbs of time and place (when? where?) - yesterday, today, now, here, there, every day. They usually go at the start or end of a sentence: I saw her yesterday. / Every day we have lunch at one.

Forms & patterns

-ly spelling:

Comparatives of adverbs in -ly use more: more quickly, more often, more carefully. Adverbs with the same form as the adjective take -er: fast -> faster, hard -> harder, soon -> sooner. Can you speak more slowly? (See Comparatives & superlatives.)

Examples

Common mistakes

• She sings good. -> She sings well. - after a verb you need the adverb well, not the adjective good.
• I drink always tea. -> I always drink tea. - put the frequency adverb before the main verb.
• She always is late. -> She is always late. - with be, the adverb goes after it.
• He speaks very good English fast. -> He speaks English very well. / He speaks fast. - don’t mix good and fast; fast is already an adverb.
• Can you talk more slowlier? -> Can you talk more slowly? - adverb comparatives use more, not -er.

Tips

• Many adverbs = adjective + -ly. If a word describes a verb (an action), reach for the -ly form: a quick car (adjective) vs drive quickly (adverb).
• Learn the pair by heart: good is the adjective, well is the adverb. Good food, but She cooks well.
• Frequency rule of thumb: “before the main verb, after be.” Test it with am/is/are: I am always…, She is never…
• Very and too are not the same: very hot is just hot; too hot is a problem (more than you want).

In short

Use the base form of the verb to tell someone to do something: Sit down. Turn left. Be careful. For a negative, put Don’t in front: Don’t worry.

The rule

The imperative is the simplest form in English. You just use the base verb (the dictionary form: go, sit, be, have) with no subject. We use it for orders, instructions, directions, requests, warnings, offers, and signs.

To make it negative, use Don’t + base verb. This works for every verb, including be:

• Don’t touch that.
• Don’t be late.

The subject you is normally left out. We add it only for emphasis or to pick out a particular person: You be quiet! You can also name the person or use words like somebody: Somebody call a doctor!

To soften an order into a polite request, add please (at the start or end) or just: Please wait here. / Wait here, please. / Just relax.

For a suggestion that includes you (the speaker), use Let’s + base verb. The negative is Let’s not + base verb.

Forms & patterns

Note: the form never changes. It is the same whether you speak to one person or many, and the same in present or future. There is no -s, no to, no do/does in positives.

Examples

Common mistakes

• To sit down. -> Sit down. - no to before the imperative verb.
• You go home. (as a plain order) -> Go home. - normally drop you; keep it only for emphasis.
• Don’t touching that. / Not touch that. -> Don’t touch that. - negative is Don’t + base verb.
• Please you wait. -> Please wait. - please + imperative; no subject.
• Let’s to go. / Let’s going. -> Let’s go. - Let’s + base verb only.

Tips

• Think “naked verb”: no subject, no to, no ending. Just Go. Wait. Help.
• One rule for all negatives, even be: Don’t + base verb (Don’t be late).
• Add please to be polite; add you only when you really mean you and not someone else.
• Let’s = let us: it always invites the listener to join in.

In short

To ask a question, put the auxiliary verb (or be) before the subject. For most present and past simple questions, you add do / does / did. A wh- word (what, where, when…) goes at the very front.

The rule

There are two main types of question.

1. Yes/No questions expect the answer yes or no. You invert (swap) the subject and the auxiliary verb or be.

2. Wh- questions ask for information. The pattern is: wh-word + auxiliary + subject + main verb.

do-support: You only add do / does / did in the present simple and past simple. Other tenses already have an auxiliary (be, have, can, will…), so you just move it to the front - you do not add do.

Subject questions: When the wh-word is the subject (the thing you are asking about does the action), use no do and keep normal word order: wh-word + verb.

Forms & patterns

Short answers repeat the auxiliary or be (never the main verb).

Question words

how + word

Examples

Common mistakes

• Where you live? -> Where do you live? - present simple needs do; don’t drop the auxiliary.
• Does she works here? -> Does she work here? - after does/did, the main verb is the base form, not -s.
• What you are doing? -> What are you doing? - invert subject and be after the wh-word.
• Who did break the window? -> Who broke the window? - in a subject question, use no do and the normal verb.
• Did you went home? -> Did you go home? - after did, use the base verb, not the past form.

Tips

• One auxiliary rule: if the sentence already has be / have / can / will, just move it to the front. If it doesn’t, add do / does / did.
• After do / does / did, the main verb is always the base form (go, not goes or went). The tense is shown by the auxiliary.
• For subject questions, ask yourself “Is the wh-word doing the action?” If yes, keep normal order and drop do.
• Wh-words go first, but yes/no questions have no wh-word - they start with the auxiliary or be.

In short

We use the past simple to talk about a finished action or state at a finished time in the past (yesterday, last week, in 2010). The verb be has two past forms (was/were); other verbs add -ed (regular) or change shape (irregular: go -> went).

The rule

1) Past of BE uses two forms:

• Negative: wasn’t (was not), weren’t (were not).
• Questions: put be first - Was I…? / Were you…?
• For things that existed: there was (singular), there were (plural).

2) Other verbs (action verbs) have the same past form for every subject - no -s, no change for he/she/it.

• Positive: regular verb + -ed (work -> worked), or the special past of an irregular verb (go -> went).
• Negative: didn’t + base verb -> I didn’t go (NOT didn’t went).
• Question: Did + subject + base verb -> Did you see it?

The little word did/didn’t already shows past time, so the main verb goes back to its base (no -ed, no change) in negatives and questions.

Forms & patterns

Regular verbs - spelling of -ed

Pronunciation of -ed (sound, not spelling):

High-frequency irregular verbs (learn these first):

Negatives & questions (regular AND irregular - same pattern):

Examples

Common mistakes

• I didn’t went -> I didn’t go - after didn’t, use the base verb, not the past.
• Did you saw it? -> Did you see it? - did already shows past, so use the base.
• He was study / He studyed -> He studied - consonant + y becomes -ied.
• We was late -> We were late - we/you/they take were, not was.
• I goed / buyed / writed -> I went / bought / wrote - common verbs are irregular; learn them by heart.

Tips

• One past form fits all subjects (except be): I/you/he/we/they worked. No -s on he/she/it.
• The /id/ ending is only for verbs ending in -t or -d (wanted, needed). Everywhere else it’s a quick /t/ or /d/, not an extra syllable.
• Keep the “power” on did/didn’t: it carries the past, so the next verb relaxes back to its base.
• Make a small notebook of irregular verbs and add a few each week - they are the most common verbs in English.

In short

Prepositions of place tell us where something is. The three most common ones are in (an enclosed space), on (a surface or line), and at (a point or specific place).

The rule

The core triad in / on / at covers most situations. Think of how big or “closed” the space feels:

A few quick contrasts:

• in the car / bus is a closed space, but we say on the bus, on the train, on the plane (you walk around inside, like on a surface).
• at the corner = the point; on the corner = the building standing there.
• a town or country is in (an area); a precise spot is at (a point).

Other place prepositions describe position relative to something else:

Forms & patterns

The pattern is fixed and simple:

subject + verb + preposition + noun phrase The keys are on the table. / She is at school.

Movement prepositions answer where to?, not where?. You will study these in detail later, but here is a pointer:

Examples

Common mistakes

• in the bus -> on the bus - public transport you can stand up in takes on.
• in the picture is correct, but on the picture -> in the picture - people and things are seen inside a photo.
• in school (for “studying”) -> at school - the activity/place uses the fixed chunk at school.
• in home -> at home - home takes at (and never the).
• on the corner / at the corner mixed up -> use at the corner for the point where streets meet.

Tips

• Picture the space: a closed box -> in, a flat surface or a line -> on, a single dot on a map -> at.
• Learn fixed collocations as whole chunks - they rarely match other languages: in bed, at school, on TV, in the picture, at the corner, at home, at work, on the left/right.
• Place prepositions answer Where is it?; movement prepositions answer Where is it going? - keep the two questions apart.
• next to, beside, and by all mean the same “at the side of” - any of them works.

In short

We use at for clock times, on for days and dates, and in for longer periods (months, seasons, years, parts of the day). With words like today, tomorrow, yesterday and this / next / last + time, we use no preposition at all.

The rule

The three main time prepositions get smaller from in to at:

A simple memory hook: in = a long box (year, month, part of day) -> on = a day on the calendar -> at = an exact point (a clock time).

No preposition

Do not put a preposition before these time words:

Other useful time words

Forms & patterns

A handy contrast: in the for parts of the day, but on when you name the day.

for vs since (full work in lesson 25):

ago comes after the time, with a past verb: I met him three years ago.

Examples

Common mistakes

• in Monday -> on Monday - days take on, not in.
• on the morning -> in the morning - parts of the day take in (but on Monday morning).
• at July -> in July - months take in.
• in last week -> last week - no preposition with this / next / last.
• since two hours -> for two hours - for = a length of time; since = a start point.
• He left before two hours -> He left two hours ago - use ago for time counted back from now.

Tips

• Shrinking sizes: in (months, years, seasons) > on (single days, dates) > at (exact times). The smaller the time, the smaller the word.
• Learn these as fixed chunks: at night, in the morning / afternoon / evening, at the weekend (BrE) / on the weekend (AmE).
• The moment a day name appears, switch to on: in the evening but on Tuesday evening.
• for answers how long? and since answers since when? - they pair naturally with the present perfect (lesson 25).

In short

can and could are modal verbs. They come before another verb in its base form to talk about ability, requests, and permission: I can swim, Could you help me?

The rule

A modal verb is a little helper that adds meaning to a main verb. Modals follow three simple habits that make them easy to use:

1. Modal + base form. The next verb has no to and no ending: She can swim (not to swim, not swimming).
2. No -s on he/she/it. The modal never changes: He can drive (not cans).
3. No do in negatives and questions. The modal itself moves or takes not: Can you…? / I can’t… (not do you can, not I don’t can).

can = present ability, an offer or request, permission, and general possibility:

can’t (= cannot) = inability or something not allowed:

could is the past of can for ability, and a polite or less certain form in the present:

Careful: for one finished action in the past, use was/were able to or managed to, not could: After an hour, we were able to open the door. But couldn’t is fine for the negative: We couldn’t open the door.

Forms & patterns

The pattern is the same for can and could; only the negative spelling changes.

can has no infinitive and no future or perfect form. We borrow be able to to fill those gaps:

Examples

Common mistakes

• She cans drive. -> She can drive. - modals never add -s.
• I can to swim. -> I can swim. - modal + base form, no to.
• Do you can help? -> Can you help? - no do with modals; the modal moves to the front.
• I don’t can come. -> I can’t come. - the modal itself becomes negative.
• I will can join you. -> I will be able to join you. - two modals can’t stack; use be able to for the future.

Tips

• Memory hook: modal + base, every time - same form for I, you, he, she, we, they.
• Could you…? sounds more polite than Can you…?, but both are fine for everyday requests.
• Use be able to whenever can has no form: after will, have, to, or another modal.
• Pronunciation: in a positive sentence can is weak and quick - /kn/ (“I kn swim”); can’t is strong with a long /a:/. Listen for the clear, stressed vowel to hear the difference between can and can’t.

In short

Use be going to + base verb to talk about plans you decided before now, and predictions you can already see coming. The form is am/is/are + going to + base form.

The rule

We use be going to in two main ways:

1. Plans and intentions - things you already decided before the moment of speaking.

   • I’m going to study medicine. (I decided this earlier.)
   • We’re going to paint the kitchen this weekend.

2. Predictions from present evidence - you can see or feel that something will happen.

   • Look at those clouds - it’s going to rain.
   • She’s going to have a baby. (You can see it now.)

The first part (am/is/are) changes with the subject. The verb after going to is always the base form (no -s, no -ed, no -ing).

To make a negative, add not to be. To make a question, put be before the subject.

Forms & patterns

Short forms:

Short answers use only be:

Examples

Common mistakes

• I going to call him. -> I’m going to call him. - you must keep am/is/are.
• She is going to calls you. -> She is going to call you. - use the base form, never -s.
• He is going to wrote a letter. -> He is going to write a letter. - base form, not past.
• Are you going help? -> Are you going to help? - don’t drop to.
• We go to rain. -> It is going to rain. - it’s be going to, not go to.

Tips

• In fast speech going to often sounds like “gonna” - that’s fine to hear, but write the full going to.
• If a plan is already decided, or you can see the evidence now, choose be going to. If you decide while speaking, use will (see lesson 19).
• going to go and going to come are correct, but people often shorten them: I’m going to the cinema instead of I’m going to go to the cinema.
• A time word like tomorrow, next week, or tonight often signals this future.

In short

We use will + base verb to talk about the future: instant decisions, predictions, promises, offers, and sure future facts (I’ll call you tonight). Shall is a more formal British word, used mainly with I/we for offers and suggestions (Shall I help? Shall we go?).

The rule

Will is a modal verb, so the form is easy and never changes:

• will + base verb - the same for every subject (no -s on he/she/it).
• Short form (very common in speech): ‘ll -> I’ll, you’ll, she’ll, we’ll, they’ll.
• Negative: will not = won’t + base verb.
• Questions: put will first -> Will you come?

We mainly use will for four things:

Shall (British, quite formal) is used with I and we to make offers and suggestions, almost always as a question:

• Shall I + base verb…? = Do you want me to…? -> Shall I open the window?
• Shall we + base verb…? = Let’s…? / a suggestion -> Shall we go now?

Forms & patterns

Will - all persons (same form):

will vs be going to - both talk about the future, but the reason is different:

Important: after when, if, as soon as, before, after, use the present simple, NOT will, for the future:

• I’ll call you when I arrive. (NOT when I will arrive)
• We’ll start as soon as he’s ready.

(More on this in Zero & first conditional.)

Examples

Common mistakes

• I will to help you. -> I will help you. - no to after will; use the base verb.
• She will calls you. -> She will call you. - never add -s; will is the same for all subjects.
• I willn’t come. -> I won’t come. - the short negative is won’t; willn’t does not exist. (The full I will not come is correct too, just more emphatic.)
• I’ll call you when I will arrive. -> …when I arrive. - present simple after when/if/as soon as.
• Shall I to open the window? / Will I open the window? -> Shall I open the window? - offers with I/we use Shall + base, no to.

Tips

• Think “decide now -> will; planned before -> going to.” A spur-of-the-moment I’ll… is the classic will.
• In speech, almost everyone says ‘ll and won’t. Saying the full I will can sound heavy or extra-serious (like a strong promise).
• Shall is mostly British and mostly in Shall I…? / Shall we…? You can always use Should I…? or Do you want me to…? instead.
• After time words when / if / as soon as / before / after, the next verb stays in the present, even though you mean the future.

In short

Conjunctions are small words that join words, phrases, or sentences. The most common ones are and, but, or, so, and because.

The rule

We use conjunctions to connect ideas instead of writing many short, separate sentences.

Coordinating conjunctions join two equal parts. Each one has its own meaning:

When and, but, or so join two full sentences (clauses), put a comma before them:

I like tea, but I don’t like coffee. It was raining, so we stayed inside.

Subordinating conjunctions add a reason, a time, or a condition. Common ones at A1: when, after, before, while, because, if, although.

The subordinate clause can come first or second. If it comes first, put a comma after it:

When it rains, I stay inside. I stay inside when it rains. (no comma)

Forms & patterns

because + clause (subject + verb) vs because of + noun:

Two-clause patterns:

Examples

Common mistakes

• I stayed home because of it was raining. -> I stayed home because it was raining. - use because (not because of) before a verb.
• Although it was late, but we went out. -> Although it was late, we went out. - never use although and but together; choose one.
• I went home, because I was tired. (mid-sentence) -> I went home because I was tired. - no comma before because when the reason comes second.
• When it rains I stay in. -> When it rains, I stay in. - put a comma when the time/if clause comes first.
• I like coffee but tea. -> I like coffee and tea. - use and for addition, but only for a contrast.

Tips

• Memory hook: and adds, but contrasts, or chooses, so = result, because = reason.
• One conjunction per join. If you start with Although or Because, do not add but or so later.
• “Comma + but/so” when two full sentences meet; no comma for short joined words (black and white).
• Bigger linking words like however, therefore, and on the other hand mean similar things but are more formal - you will meet them at higher levels.

In short

Countable nouns can be counted: they have a singular and a plural, and take a/an and numbers (a book, two books). Uncountable nouns are seen as one whole mass: they have no plural and no a/an (water, money, advice).

The rule

A countable noun is a separate thing you can count one by one. It has two forms:

• singular with a/an: a car, an apple
• plural with -s or a number: cars, two apples, three cars

An uncountable noun is a mass, a material, a liquid, or an idea. You treat it as a single whole, so:

• no a/an before it: a water -> water / some water
• no plural -s: advices, informations -> advice, information
• it takes a singular verb: The news is good. The furniture is new.

Many nouns that are uncountable in English are countable in other languages. These cause the most common A2 errors. Learn this short high-frequency list as uncountable:

To count an uncountable noun, use a unit or container word + of:

This also makes them plural: two pieces of advice, three glasses of water, two pieces of luggage.

Forms & patterns

Use the right quantifier with each type. Some and any work with both.

Some nouns are both countable and uncountable, with a change of meaning:

Examples

Common mistakes

• an information -> some information / a piece of information - information is uncountable; no a/an, no plural.
• She gave me good advices. -> good advice / two pieces of advice - advice never takes -s.
• The news are bad. -> The news is bad. - uncountable nouns take a singular verb.
• How much chairs? -> How many chairs? - use many (not much) with countable nouns.
• I need to buy a new furniture. -> some new furniture / a new piece of furniture - furniture is uncountable.

Tips

• If you can put a number directly in front of it (two ___), it’s countable. If that sounds wrong, it’s uncountable.
• Memory hook for the tricky ones: advice, information, news, furniture, luggage, work, weather, money are all uncountable in English.
• Use a piece of as a safe all-purpose counter for abstract mass nouns: a piece of advice / information / news / furniture.
• much feels formal in positive sentences. In everyday English use a lot of for both types: a lot of money, a lot of friends.

In short

Quantifiers tell us how much or how many: use some in positive sentences and any in negatives and questions; use much with uncountable nouns and many with countable nouns. A few / a little mean “some”, while few / little (no a) mean “almost none”.

The rule

some vs any. Use some in affirmative (positive) sentences, and also in offers and requests. Use any in negatives and most questions.

much vs many vs a lot of. Much goes with uncountable nouns; many goes with countable (plural) nouns. We use them mostly in negatives and questions. In positive sentences, a lot of / lots of is more natural for both.

(a) few vs (a) little. Both pairs mean “a small amount”, but the article changes the feeling.

Other quantifiers. too much / too many = more than you want (excess). (not) enough = the right amount or less. no + noun = not any (There’s no bread = There isn’t any bread). all, most, some, no/none, every, each, both, a couple of show how big a part of a group you mean.

Forms & patterns

Examples

Common mistakes

• I have any friends. -> I have some friends. - use some in positive sentences.
• I don’t have some time. -> I don’t have any time. - use any in negatives.
• She has much books. -> She has a lot of / many books. - much is for uncountable; in a positive sentence use a lot of.
• I have a few money. -> I have a little money. - money is uncountable, so a little, not a few.
• There aren’t no apples. -> There aren’t any apples. / There are no apples. - don’t use a double negative; no already means “not any”.
• He has too much friends. -> He has too many friends. - too many with countable plurals.

Tips

• some = positive, any = not sure / negative. But say some in offers and requests, because you expect “yes”: Would you like some cake?
• Count the noun first. If you can count it (plural), use many / a few / too many. If you can’t, use much / a little / too much.
• a makes it positive. a few / a little = “enough, don’t worry”; few / little = “not enough, a problem”.
• In everyday positive sentences, a lot of / lots of is the safe choice for both countable and uncountable nouns.

In short

Use the comparative to compare two things (cheaper, more expensive) and the superlative to pick out one from a group (the cheapest, the most expensive). Short adjectives add -er / -est; longer ones use more / most.

The rule

Adjective length decides the form:

Build comparisons with these patterns:

• than after a comparative: Tokyo is bigger than Osaka.
• (not) as … as for equal / unequal things: She is as tall as her brother.
• the + superlative, often with in (places, groups) or of (a set/time): the tallest in the class, the best day of the year.

Forms & patterns

Spelling changes for short adjectives:

Irregular adjectives (learn these by heart):

Make a comparison stronger or weaker with much / far / a bit / a little before the comparative:

• This phone is much better. (big difference)
• Today is a bit colder than yesterday. (small difference)

Two changes that happen together: the + comparative …, the + comparative …

• The older I get, the happier I am.
• The more you practise, the better you speak.

Adverbs follow the same idea but usually take more / most:

• Please drive more carefully.
• She works the most efficiently in the morning.

Examples

Common mistakes

• more bigger -> bigger - never use more with an -er form (no double comparative).
• more good / the most good -> better / the best - good is irregular.
• She is taller that me -> taller than me - use than, not that, in comparisons.
• the most cheap -> the cheapest - one-syllable adjectives take -est, not most.
• as tall than him -> as tall as him - the equality pattern is as … as.

Tips

• Count syllables first: 1 syllable -> -er/-est; 3+ syllables -> more/most. Two-syllable words ending in -y usually take -ier/-iest (easy -> easier).
• Comparative goes with than; superlative goes with the (and often in or of).
• After than and as, an object pronoun sounds natural in speech (than me); the full clause (than I am) is more formal.
• Keep a short list of irregulars on a card: good/bad/far/little/many. They never add -er or more.

In short

Use the past continuous (was/were + verb-ing) for an action that was in progress at a moment in the past. It often sets the background or scene, while the past simple gives the shorter, completed events.

The rule

The past continuous shows that an action was already happening at a certain past time - it had started but had not finished yet.

We use it to:

1. Describe an action in progress at a specific past moment. At 8 p.m. I was cooking dinner. (I started before 8 and was still cooking at 8.)

2. Give a longer background action that a shorter past-simple action interrupts. Use when before the short event and while before the long one. I was reading when the phone rang. While I was reading, the lights went out.

3. Show two longer actions happening at the same time. She was studying while he was cooking.

4. Set the scene at the start of a story. The sun was shining and the birds were singing.

Key contrast:

Stative verbs (know, want, like, have = own, be) usually do not take the continuous here: say I knew the answer, not I was knowing. (See Present continuous for the list.)

Forms & patterns

Subject + was/were + verb-ing:

Negative - add not after was/were:

Questions - move was/were in front of the subject:

Spelling of -ing: make -> making (drop final e), sit -> sitting (double the final consonant), lie -> lying (ie -> y).

Examples

Common mistakes

• I was knowing the answer -> I knew the answer - stative verbs don’t take the continuous.
• When I was cooking, I burn my hand -> When I was cooking, I burnt my hand - the short, finished event needs past simple.
• We was watching a film -> We were watching a film - use were with you/we/they.
• While I read, the phone rang -> While I was reading, the phone rang - while usually goes with the longer, in-progress action.
• What you were doing? -> What were you doing? - move was/were before the subject in questions.

Tips

• Picture a line and a dot: the past continuous is the line (action going on), the past simple is the dot (the moment something happens on that line).
• Easy pairing: when + past simple (short event), while + past continuous (longer action).
• If you can add still in front of the verb (I was still eating), the past continuous fits.
• For habits or single finished facts, use the past simple instead - the past continuous is only for actions in progress.

In short

The present perfect connects the past and now: have/has + past participle. We use it for life experiences, recent news, and things that started in the past and are still true. We do not use it with a finished-time word like yesterday or last week.

The rule

Make the present perfect with have / has + the past participle (the “3rd form” of the verb).

• Regular verbs: the past participle ends in -ed, the same as the past simple (work -> worked, live -> lived).
• Irregular verbs: you must learn the 3rd form (go -> went -> gone, see -> saw -> seen).

Use the present perfect for four main jobs:

The key contrast with the past simple: if the sentence has a finished-time word (yesterday, last week, in 2019, two days ago, when I was a child), use the past simple, not the present perfect.

Note (AmE vs BrE): American English often uses the past simple where British English uses the present perfect, for example Did you eat yet? (AmE) vs Have you eaten yet? (BrE). Both are understood.

Forms & patterns

Positive: subject + have/has + past participle

Negative: subject + have not / has not + participle. Short forms: haven’t, hasn’t.

Questions: Have/Has + subject + participle?

Short answers: Yes, I have. / No, I haven’t. - Yes, she has. / No, she hasn’t.

Short forms of have/has in positives: I’ve, you’ve, we’ve, they’ve, he’s, she’s, it’s.

Starter list of irregular past participles:

been vs gone:

Examples

Common mistakes

• I have seen him yesterday. -> I saw him yesterday. - a finished-time word needs past simple.
• She have finished. -> She has finished. - use has with he/she/it.
• I have went to London. -> I have gone / been to London. - use the participle (gone/been), not the past simple went.
• I live here for five years. -> I’ve lived here for five years. - “up to now” needs present perfect, not present simple.
• I’ve been there since two weeks. -> I’ve been there for two weeks. - for + length of time, since + start point.

Tips

• Trigger words for the present perfect: ever, never, just, already, yet, so far, for, since.
• Trigger words for the past simple: yesterday, ago, last (week/year), in 2019, when…. If you see one, switch tense.
• for answers “how long?” (for two days); since answers “from when?” (since Monday).
• gone = still away; been = went and came back. Picture the person: are they here or not?

In short

Use must and have to to say something is necessary, and should / ought to to give advice. Be careful: mustn’t means “don’t do it - it’s forbidden”, but don’t have to means “you can if you want - it’s not necessary”.

The rule

These verbs all come before the base form of another verb (no to, except have to, ought to and need to).

Obligation - something is necessary:

• must = strong obligation or a rule, often the speaker’s own feeling: You must wear a seatbelt. / I must call her.
• have to / has to = obligation from outside (a law, your job, the situation): I have to work on Saturday.

In everyday speech the two often overlap. The big difference appears in the negative:

Advice - a good idea:

• should / shouldn’t = advice, a recommendation: You should rest. / You shouldn’t worry.
• ought to = the same as should, a little more formal: You ought to see a doctor.
• had better (‘d better) = strong advice or a warning about now, often with a bad result if you don’t: You’d better hurry.

Past obligation: There is no past form of must for obligation. Use had to for everything in the past: I had to leave early yesterday.

Semi-modals (similar meaning):

• need to = it is necessary: I need to buy milk. (negative: don’t need to)
• be supposed to = it is expected, that is the plan/rule: We’re supposed to wear black.

Forms & patterns

Note: must, should and ought to never add -s in the third person, and never use do/does in questions or negatives. Only have to and need to use do/does.

Examples

Common mistakes

• You don’t must smoke. -> You mustn’t smoke. - must never uses do; the prohibition form is mustn’t.
• You mustn’t pay, it’s free. -> You don’t have to pay, it’s free. - “not necessary” is don’t have to, not mustn’t (forbidden).
• Does she must work today? -> Does she have to work today? - use have to (with do/does) for questions, not must.
• I must to call him. -> I must call him. - no to after must, should or mustn’t.
• Yesterday I must leave early. -> Yesterday I had to leave early. - past obligation is always had to.
• You should to rest. -> You should rest. - should takes the base form, no to.

Tips

• Memory hook: mustn’t = stop! (forbidden), don’t have to = relax (it’s optional). These two are NOT the same.
• For your own strong feelings or written rules, must fits best; for everyday outside obligations and questions, have to sounds more natural.
• had better is stronger than should - it hints at a bad result: You’d better save your work (or you’ll lose it).
• There is only one past for obligation: had to. Don’t look for a past of must.

In short

A gerund is the -ing form of a verb used like a noun (swimming, reading); a to-infinitive is to + the base verb (to swim, to read). When one verb follows another, the first verb decides which form to use.

The rule

English has no single rule for when to use -ing and when to use to + verb. You learn it by the first verb, by prepositions, and by a few special meanings.

• Verb + -ing: some verbs are followed by a gerund: enjoy, finish, mind, avoid, suggest, keep, practise, can’t stand, give up, look forward to.
• Verb + to-infinitive: other verbs take to + base verb: want, would like, decide, hope, plan, need, promise, agree, learn, manage, offer, refuse.
• Both forms, same meaning: start, begin, continue, like, love, hate, prefer take either form with almost no change: It started raining = It started to rain.
• Both forms, different meaning: with remember, forget, stop, try, the two forms mean different things (see the table below).
• After a preposition (at, in, before, of, about…) always use -ing: good at swimming, before leaving.
• To-infinitive of purpose answers why?: I went out to buy milk (= in order to buy).
• Gerund as subject: -ing can begin a sentence: Swimming is fun.
• Verb + object + to-infinitive: want, tell, ask, need + person + to + verb: I want you to come.
• After modals (can, must, will, should…) use the bare infinitive (no to): I can swim (see lesson 17).

Forms & patterns

Meaning changes with these four verbs:

Examples

Common mistakes

• I enjoy to swim -> I enjoy swimming - enjoy is always followed by -ing.
• We decided going home -> We decided to go home - decide needs the to-infinitive.
• He is good at cook -> He is good at cooking - after a preposition, use -ing.
• To swim is fun -> Swimming is fun - use the gerund as a subject (more natural at A2).
• I want that you come -> I want you to come - English uses verb + object + to-infinitive, not that.

Tips

• Memorise the first verb together with its form: want to…, enjoy -ing. Learn them as fixed pairs.
• After any preposition (before, after, without, in, of, at) the verb is always -ing.
• to + verb often answers the question Why? - that is the purpose use.
• With stop / remember / forget / try, check the meaning first, then choose the form.

In short

A conditional sentence has two parts: an if-clause (the condition) and a result. Use the zero conditional for things that are always true, and the first conditional for real, possible situations in the future.

The rule

A conditional has two clauses. One starts with if (or when); the other is the result.

Zero conditional - facts, general truths, and automatic results (cause -> effect). Both verbs are in the present simple. Here if and when mean almost the same thing (“every time”):

First conditional - one real, possible, or likely situation in the future. Use the present simple after if, and will / can / may (or an imperative) in the result:

The crucial rule: do not put will in the if-clause. After if, when, unless, as soon as, before, after, until, use the present simple even though you are talking about the future.

• Not: If it will rain, we’ll stay in.
• Yes: If it rains, we’ll stay in.

unless = if not. Use it for the one situation that stops the result:

• I’ll go for a walk unless it rains. (= if it does not rain)

Comma rule: put a comma when the if-clause comes first; use no comma when it comes second.

• If you ask him, he’ll help. (comma)
• He’ll help if you ask him. (no comma)

Forms & patterns

Useful linking words that also take the present simple (no will):

Examples

Common mistakes

• If it will rain, we stay home. -> If it rains, we’ll stay home. - No will in the if-clause; will goes in the result.
• When you will be ready, call me. -> When you’re ready, call me. - Present simple after when for future time.
• Unless you don’t study, you’ll fail. -> Unless you study, you’ll fail. - unless already means “if not”; don’t add a second negative.
• If you heat ice it will melt. -> If you heat ice, it melts. - A general truth is zero conditional (present simple), not will.
• If you ask him he’ll help (missing comma) -> If you ask him, he’ll help. - Add a comma when the if-clause comes first.

Tips

• Quick test: is it always true (a fact)? Use zero (present + present). Is it one possible future event? Use first (present + will).
• The if-clause almost never uses will. Keep will / can / may for the result side only.
• Swap unless for “if not” in your head to check it: “unless it rains” = “if it does not rain.”
• Order is free: “If…, result” or “result if…”. Just remember the comma only when if comes first.

In short

A phrasal verb is a verb + a small word (a particle like up, on, off, after) that work together as one unit: get up, turn on, give up, look after. The new meaning is often not literal - give up means “quit”, not “give in an upward direction”.

The rule

A phrasal verb = a normal verb + a particle (an adverb or preposition). Together they make a new meaning, and you cannot always guess it from the words.

These verbs are everyday, spoken English. Native speakers use them all the time, so they are very useful to know.

There are three types to recognise:

Separable phrasal verbs

With many transitive phrasal verbs, a noun object can go in two places:

• Turn on the light. (verb + particle + noun)
• Turn the light on. (verb + noun + particle)

But a pronoun object (it, them, him, her) MUST go in the middle:

• Turn it on. ✅
• Turn on it. ❌

Inseparable phrasal verbs

With some phrasal verbs the two parts never split. The object always comes after the particle, even a pronoun:

• I look after the kids. / I look after them. ✅
• I look the kids after. ❌

Intransitive phrasal verbs

These have no object at all:

• Please sit down.
• I woke up late.

Forms & patterns

The verb part changes for tense like any normal verb: get up -> got up, find out -> found out, take off -> took off. The particle never changes.

Examples

Common mistakes

• Turn on it -> turn it on - a pronoun object always goes between the verb and the particle.
• I look my dog after -> I look after my dog - look after is inseparable; never split it.
• Please sit down the chair -> please sit down - sit down takes no object; add nothing after it.
• He gived up -> he gave up - change the verb part for the tense (give -> gave); the particle stays.
• Switch off it -> switch it off - same rule: it/them/him/her go in the middle.

Tips

• Learn each phrasal verb as a whole “word” with its meaning, like new vocabulary - don’t translate part by part.
• Memory hook: pronouns sit in the middle. If the object is it, them, him, her, it goes between the two parts.
• When you meet a new phrasal verb, note whether it takes an object and whether it can split. Write a short example sentence to remember it.
• This lesson is only an introduction. You will meet many more phrasal verbs as you build vocabulary, so collect them as you go.

In short

Reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, …) point back to the subject when the subject and the object are the same person: I cut myself. Indefinite pronouns (someone, anything, nobody, everywhere) talk about people, things, or places without saying exactly which.

The rule

Reflexive pronouns. Use a reflexive pronoun when the person doing the action and the person receiving it are the same: She taught herself Spanish (she was both the teacher and the student). They also add emphasis (I painted the house myself = no one helped me), and after by they mean “alone / without help”: He lives by himself.

Verbs that are NOT reflexive in English. Many languages add “-self” to these verbs, but English does not. Just use the verb alone: wash, shave, dress, feel, relax, concentrate, meet. Say I feel tired (not I feel myself tired), She got dressed (not dressed herself), We meet on Mondays (not meet ourselves).

each other / one another (reciprocal). These are NOT the same as the “-selves” words. They love each other means A loves B and B loves A (mutually). They love themselves means each person loves only their own self. Use each other for two; one another is a slightly more formal way to say the same thing.

Indefinite pronouns. Build them from some- / any- / no- / every- plus -one / -body / -thing / -where. The some / any choice follows the same rule as lesson 22: some- in positive sentences, offers, and requests; any- in negatives and questions. These words take a singular verb (Everybody is here), but we refer back to them with they / their / them when the person is unknown (Someone left their bag).

Forms & patterns

Examples

Common mistakes

• I feel myself tired. -> I feel tired. - feel, wash, shave, relax, meet, concentrate are not reflexive in English.
• They love themselves. (meaning mutually) -> They love each other. - use each other for “to one another”.
• Everybody are happy. -> Everybody is happy. - indefinite pronouns take a singular verb.
• I didn’t see nobody. -> I didn’t see anybody. / I saw nobody. - don’t mix not with no-; use any- after a negative.
• Is there something to eat? -> Is there anything to eat? - use any- in questions (but some- in offers: Would you like something?).

Tips

• Reflexive = a mirror. The action bounces back to the doer. If the object is a different person, use a normal object pronoun: I saw him (not himself).
• by + -self = alone. I did it by myself = without help; I did it myself (emphasis) = it was me, not someone else.
• each other (2 people) vs -selves (back to yourself). “They emailed each other” = both ways; “They emailed themselves” = each sent a mail to their own inbox.
• After someone / everybody / no one, use a singular verb but they/their to refer back - it avoids saying he or she: Has anyone lost their keys?

In short

Use too for “more than you want” (a problem), enough for “the right amount” (okay), and so / such to make an adjective or noun stronger. Remember: too is not the same as very.

The rule

too = more than is necessary or wanted. It always sounds like a problem.

• too + adjective/adverb: It’s too hot. / You drive too fast.
• too much + uncountable noun: too much salt, too much noise
• too many + countable noun: too many people, too many emails

enough = as much as you need (neutral or positive).

• adjective/adverb + enough (enough comes AFTER): old enough, fast enough, good enough
• enough + noun (enough comes BEFORE): enough money, enough time, enough chairs

too / (not) enough + to-infinitive to give a result:

• too tired to walk (= I can’t walk, it’s too much)
• old enough to drive (= old enough, that’s fine)
• not warm enough to swim (= not enough warmth)

so + adjective/adverb makes it stronger: so tired, so quickly. such + (a/an) + (adjective) + noun does the same with a noun: such a long day, such nice people. Both often add a that-clause to show the result: so tired that I slept / such a good film that I saw it twice.

too vs very: very good = just strong (positive). too good = a problem. Don’t say “The film was too good, I loved it” - use very.

Forms & patterns

Examples

Common mistakes

• I have too many homework. -> I have too much homework. - homework is uncountable, so use too much.
• She is enough old to drive. -> She is old enough to drive. - enough goes AFTER an adjective.
• He is too tired for walk. -> He is too tired to walk. - the result pattern uses to + verb, not for.
• It was a so nice day. -> It was such a nice day. - before a noun use such (a), not so.
• The hotel was too good, we loved it. -> The hotel was very good, we loved it. - too means a problem; for a positive idea use very.

Tips

• Quick test: if it’s a complaint or problem, use too; if it’s fine/positive, use enough or very.
• Word order hook: adjective + enough but enough + noun (good enough vs enough food).
• so + adjective alone (so nice); such + a noun group (such a nice place). If there’s a noun, reach for such.
• After too much / too many, check the noun: uncountable -> much, countable plural -> many (see lesson 21).

In short

Use the present perfect continuous (have/has been + verb-ing) to talk about an activity that started in the past and is still going on, or one that has just stopped but whose results you can see now. It puts the focus on the activity and how long it has lasted.

The rule

We form this tense with have/has + been + the -ing form of the verb.

There are two main uses:

With for we give a length of time (for two hours, for ages). With since we give a starting point (since 9 o’clock, since Monday).

Be careful with stative verbs (verbs about states, not actions: know, like, love, want, need, believe, have = own, understand). They are not normally used in the continuous. Use the present perfect simple instead.

I’ve known her for years. (NOT I’ve been knowing her…)

Forms & patterns

Contractions: I’ve / you’ve / we’ve / they’ve been…, he’s / she’s / it’s been… (here ‘s = has).

-ing spelling reminders: make -> making, sit -> sitting, lie -> lying, study -> studying.

Examples

Common mistakes

• I’ve been knowing him for years. -> I’ve known him for years. - Stative verbs (know, like, have = own) take the simple, not the continuous.
• I am waiting for an hour. -> I’ve been waiting for an hour. - Use the present perfect, not the present, for time leading up to now.
• She’s been work here since May. -> She’s been working here since May. - Don’t forget been + the -ing form.
• I’ve been living here for 2015. -> I’ve been living here since 2015. - Use since with a start point, for with a length of time.
• How long are you learning English? -> How long have you been learning English? - Use this tense to ask “how long” up to now.

Tips

• Ask yourself: activity or result? If you want to stress the activity and its duration, use the continuous (I’ve been reading). If you stress completion or quantity, use the simple (I’ve read three books / I’ve read it twice).
• “Visible evidence now” is a strong signal for the continuous: wet ground, red eyes, being out of breath, paint on your hands.
• For = how long; since = when it started. Both work with this tense.
• If the verb describes a state, not an action (know, believe, own), switch to the present perfect simple.

In short

Use the past perfect (had + past participle) for the “past before the past” - something that happened before another moment or action in the past. It points back to an earlier event when you are already talking about the past.

The rule

When you tell a story or describe the past, the past simple carries the main events. Sometimes you need to mention something that happened even earlier. For that, you “step back” one more level with the past perfect.

When I arrived, the train had already left. (First the train left. Then I arrived. The past perfect shows which came first.)

The form is the same for every person (I / you / he / she / it / we / they): just had + the past participle. You do not change had for he/she/it.

The past perfect is very common with these words: already, just, never, ever, by the time, after, before, because.

With after / before, the time order is already clear from the word itself, so the past perfect is optional - the past simple is often enough.

After he had finished, he left. = After he finished, he left.

Narrative tenses (the bigger picture). In a story these three tenses work together:

Past perfect continuous (a quick sub-pointer): had been + -ing stresses the length of an earlier action. Her eyes were red because she had been crying. See Present perfect continuous for the same idea one level forward.

Forms & patterns

Note: ‘d can mean had or would. If a past participle follows, it is had (She’d left = She had left). If a base verb follows, it is would (She’d leave = She would leave).

The past participle is the third form of the verb: regular verbs add -ed (work -> worked), irregular verbs must be learned (go -> gone, see -> seen, write -> written, take -> taken, break -> broken). See Past simple for the irregular list.

Examples

Common mistakes

• When I arrived, the train left. -> When I arrived, the train had left. - use the past perfect for the event that happened first.
• I had went home. -> I had gone home. - after had, use the past participle, not the past simple.
• He has finished before I called. -> He had finished before I called. - the past before the past needs had, not has.
• First I had cooked, then I had eaten. -> First I cooked, then I ate. - if the order is already clear (then, first), the past simple is enough; don’t overuse the past perfect.
• She*‘d** leave when I arrived.* (meaning she had gone) -> She*‘d left** when I arrived.* - for past perfect, ‘d needs a past participle.

Tips

• Ask: “Did this happen before another past thing I’m talking about?” If yes, step back with had + past participle.
• One past perfect is usually enough to mark “earlier” - then return to the past simple for the rest of the story.
• Had never changes for person: I/you/he/she/we/they had - one form for all.
• In stories: past simple = events, past continuous = scene, past perfect = the flashback. Use the third only when you really jump back in time.

In short

Use used to + base verb for habits and states that were true in the past but are not true now. would + base verb can replace it for repeated past actions, but not for past states.