In short

Take the verb stem (infinitive minus -en) and add a personal ending: -e, -st, -t, -en, -t, -en. Strong verbs also change their stem vowel, but only in du and er/sie/es. German has one present tense: it means both “I work” and “I am working”, and with a time word it even points to the future.

The rule

To conjugate a regular (weak) verb, drop -en from the infinitive to get the stem, then add the ending for each person.

machen (to do/make) -> stem mach-

Two spelling adjustments keep the endings pronounceable:

• Stem ends in -t or -d -> add an extra -e- before -st and -t: arbeiten -> du arbeitest, er arbeitet, ihr arbeitet. Same with finden, reden, warten.
• Stem ends in -s, -ss, -ß, -z -> the du form adds only -t (the -s of -st merges): heißen -> du heißt, reisen -> du reist, tanzen -> du tanzt.

Strong (stem-changing) verbs take the same endings, but the stem vowel changes - only in du and er/sie/es. The other four persons keep the normal stem.

Forms & patterns

Side-by-side: a regular verb, an “extra -e-” verb, and a strong verb.

Tip: if you know the du and er/sie/es forms of a strong verb, you know its whole irregular part - everything else is regular.

Examples

Common mistakes

• du arbeitst -> du arbeitest - a stem in -t/-d needs the extra -e- before the ending.
• du heißst -> du heißt - after -s/-ss/-ß/-z, the du form takes only -t.
• ich spreche / wir sprechen are fine, but wir sprichen -> wir sprechen - the vowel change happens only in du and er/sie/es, never in ich, wir, ihr, sie.
• Ich bin arbeiten -> Ich arbeite - German has no “am …-ing” form; the simple present covers it.
• er fahrt / er schlaft -> er fährt / er schläft - don’t forget the a -> ä change in er/sie/es.

Tips

• Memorise strong verbs as a pair: du gibst, er gibt - hear the vowel switch and the rest follows.
• One German present = three English ideas: Ich lerne Deutsch can mean “I learn / I am learning / I do learn German”.
• Add a time word and the present becomes the future: Heute Abend koche ich, nächste Woche fliegen wir nach Wien.
• For the -e- helper, say it out loud: du findst is hard to pronounce, so German says du findest.

In short

sein (to be), haben (to have) and werden (to become) are the three most important German verbs. They are highly irregular, so learn their forms by heart - you will use them in almost every sentence.

The rule

These three verbs do not follow the regular pattern from lesson 2; you simply have to memorise them.

• sein describes identity and state: who or what someone is, where they are, how they feel (Ich bin Lehrer. Wir sind müde.).
• haben expresses possession and appears in many fixed phrases: Hunger haben (to be hungry), Durst haben (to be thirsty), Angst haben (to be afraid), recht haben (to be right). Note that German uses haben where English uses to be in these idioms.
• werden as a main verb means to become / to get. Use it for a change of state (Es wird kalt. - It is getting cold) or a future role (Ich werde Arzt. - I am going to be a doctor). A predicate noun after werden has no article when it states a profession: Sie wird Ärztin.

These verbs also do grammatical work later: sein and haben form the Perfekt (lesson 19), and werden builds the Futur I (lesson 32) and the passive (lesson 38). Here we use them only as full verbs.

Forms & patterns

Watch the spots learners get wrong: du bist (not bist du in a statement), ihr seid (with -d, not seit), du hast / er hat (single -t, no -st on er), and du wirst / er wird (the stem changes e → i).

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ich bin Hunger -> Ich habe Hunger - German says haben, not sein, for hunger, thirst, fear, etc.
• ihr seit -> ihr seid - the verb ends in -d; seit is the preposition since.
• du habst / er habt -> du hast / er hat - haben drops the -b- in du and er/sie/es.
• du werdest / er werd -> du wirst / er wird - werden changes e → i and adds these special endings.
• Sie wird eine Lehrerin -> Sie wird Lehrerin - drop the article before a profession with werden/sein.

Tips

• Chant the three columns out loud until they are automatic - they pay off every single day.
• Remember the haben-idioms as a set: Hunger, Durst, Angst, recht, Zeit, Glück - all take haben.
• ist vs. isst: er ist = he is, er isst = he eats. One s means to be.
• werden + state = a change in progress (Es wird dunkel); sein + state = the result (Es ist dunkel).

In short

The subject pronouns are ich, du, er, sie, es, wir, ihr, sie, Sie. German has THREE words for “you”: du (one friend), ihr (several friends) and Sie (formal, always capitalised). For things, pick er / sie / es by the noun’s gender (der → er, die → sie, das → es), not always “es”.

The rule

Every German sentence needs a subject. Instead of repeating the noun, you use a pronoun before the verb, and the verb ending agrees with it (same endings as in lesson 2).

The hard parts for learners:

1. Three “you”. Use du for one person you know well (friend, family, child), ihr for several such people, and Sie for anyone you address politely - one person or a group. Sie is always written with a capital S, even in the middle of a sentence.

2. er / sie / es follow grammatical gender, not meaning. A thing is not automatically “es”. Replace the noun by the pronoun that matches its article:

   • der Tisch → er (Der Tisch ist neu. → Er ist neu.)
   • die Lampe → sie (Die Lampe ist neu. → Sie ist neu.)
   • das Buch → es (Das Buch ist neu. → Es ist neu.) So “Er ist neu” can mean “It is new” when er stands for der Tisch.

3. Never drop the subject. Unlike Spanish or Italian, German always keeps the pronoun: say Ich bin müde, not “Bin müde”.

Forms & patterns

Pronouns with their present-tense verb endings (verb kommen = to come):

The three “you” at a glance:

er / sie / es by gender:

Preview - object forms (full lesson 22). Don’t memorise these yet; just notice that pronouns change in the accusative and dative:

Examples

Common mistakes

• Der Tisch? Es ist neu. -> Er ist neu. - er/sie/es follow the noun’s gender (der → er), not the English “it”.
• kommen sie morgen? (meaning formal “you”) -> Kommen Sie morgen? - formal Sie is ALWAYS capitalised; lowercase sie means “they/she”.
• Hallo Chef, kommst du mit? -> Hallo Chef, kommen Sie mit? - use Sie with people you don’t know well or in formal settings.
• Bin sehr müde. -> Ich bin sehr müde. - German cannot drop the subject pronoun; always keep it.
• du to several friends -> Kommt ihr mit? - one friend = du, several friends = ihr.

Tips

• Gender hook: der → er, die → sie, das → es. Match the article and you have the pronoun.
• ihr is simply du in the plural - same friendly tone, just more people.
• Sie (you) looks exactly like sie (they): both take the -en ending. Only the capital S and the context tell them apart.
• When unsure how polite to be with an adult stranger, start with Sie; switch to du only when invited (“Wir können uns duzen”).

In short

German has five plural patterns and no single rule that tells you which one a noun takes, so always learn the plural together with the noun and its article. In the plural the article is always die (nominative), and in the dative plural the noun gets an extra -n.

The rule

Every German noun belongs to one of five plural groups. There is no reliable way to predict the group from the singular, so memorise the plural form as part of the vocabulary (e.g. write der Tisch, die Tische, not just der Tisch).

The five patterns:

Two things stay constant whatever the pattern:

1. The nominative plural article is always die: die Tische, die Kinder, die Frauen, die Autos, die Lehrer.
2. In the dative plural the noun adds -n (unless the plural already ends in -n or -s): mit den Kindern, mit den Tischen — but mit den Frauen, mit den Autos.

Forms & patterns

Plural article across the cases (the dative -n on the noun):

Quick feel for which pattern is likely:

These are tendencies, not laws — still check each word.

Examples

Common mistakes

• die Auto -> die Autos - each noun has its own plural form and you have to use it; Auto is a loanword, so it takes -s.
• die Buchs -> die Bücher - don’t default to -s; only loanwords take -s. Native nouns use the learned pattern.
• mit den Kinder -> mit den Kindern - the dative plural adds -n to the noun.
• die Mutters / die Muttern -> die Mütter - some nouns add no ending, only an umlaut; you must memorise this.
• der Tische / das Kinder -> die Tische / die Kinder - the nominative plural article is always die, never der/das.

Tips

• Learn every noun as a triple: article + singular + plural (der Tisch, die Tische). The plural is not optional extra info.
• Memory hook: feminine -> (e)n, loanword -> s. These two cover a huge share of nouns and are nearly always right.
• The dative -n is automatic: if you say mit den / bei den / aus den …, add -n to the noun unless it already ends in -n or -s.
• Watch for umlauts: a, o, u in the stem often become ä, ö, ü in the plural (Stuhl -> Stühle, Haus -> Häuser, Mutter -> Mütter).

In short

German counts the units before the tens: 21 is einundzwanzig (“one-and-twenty”). Numbers up to a million are written as a single word, decimals use a comma (Komma), and you need these numbers from day one for time, prices and age.

The rule

Learn 0-12 by heart, then the pattern for the teens, the tens, and the units-before-tens combination.

0-20

Note the short stems: sechzehn (not sechszehn) and siebzehn (not siebenzehn).

The tens

Only dreißig is written with ß; the other tens end in -zig. Again the short stems sech- and sieb-.

Units before tens (21-99)

Take the unit, add und, then the ten - all as one word. 21 = ein + und + zwanzig. The “1” is ein here, never eins.

Hundreds & thousands

Read the hundreds/thousands from left to right, but the last two digits keep the units-before-tens order. Everything is still one word.

eins vs. ein

When you count or stand alone, say eins: Eins, zwei, drei! Before a noun it behaves like the article and loses the -s: ein Euro, eine Stunde.

Decimals - with a comma

German uses a comma for the decimal point and reads it as Komma: 3,5 = drei Komma fünf. (The thousands separator is a dot or space, the opposite of English.)

Forms & patterns

Telling the time / Die Uhrzeit

Ask: Wie spät ist es? (“How late is it?”) or Wie viel Uhr ist es? Answer with Es ist …

Watch out: halb neun means 8:30, not 9:30 - German points to the coming hour (“half on the way to nine”).

24-hour clock / Die 24-Stunden-Uhr

Official contexts (timetables, TV, appointments) use the 24-hour clock with Uhr between hours and minutes.

Prices / Preise

Euro and Cent. The comma separates Euro from Cent. 3,99 € = drei Euro neunundneunzig. Casually the unit is often dropped: zwei fünfzig (2,50 €). Euro stays singular after a number: fünf Euro, not fünf Euros.

Examples

Common mistakes

• zwanzigeins / zwanzig-eins -> einundzwanzig - the unit comes first, joined by und, all one word.
• halb drei = 3:30 -> halb drei = 2:30 - halb points to the next hour, not the current one.
• fünf Euros -> fünf Euro - the currency stays singular and uncounted after a number.
• drei Punkt fünf -> drei Komma fünf - German decimals use a comma, read as Komma.
• eins Buch / sechszehn / siebenzehn -> ein Buch, sechzehn, siebzehn - drop the -s before a noun; the short stems lose a syllable.

Tips

• Units-before-tens is the old English nursery rhyme “four and twenty blackbirds” - same logic, every time.
• halb + next hour: imagine the clock hand already climbing toward the coming number.
• Numbers below a million are one single word with no spaces or hyphens: einhundertvierundzwanzig.
• Only dreißig has ß; remember the trio sech-/sieb- drops letters in 16, 17, 60, 70.

In short

German shows a noun’s job in the sentence through its case, marked on the article. The nominative is the subject (Wer/Was?) and the dictionary form; the accusative is the direct object (Wen/Was?). Good news: between these two cases only the masculine article changes (der -> den, ein -> einen); feminine, neuter and plural stay the same.

The rule

Every German sentence has a subject in the nominative - the person or thing doing the action. Ask Wer? (who) or Was? (what):

• Der Mann schläft. - The man is sleeping. (Wer schläft? -> der Mann)
• Das Kind spielt. - The child is playing.

The nominative is also the dictionary form of a noun, and it is used for the complement after sein, werden and bleiben - these verbs are like an “equals sign”, so both sides are nominative:

• Er ist ein Lehrer. - He is a teacher.
• Das wird ein guter Tag. - That’s going to be a good day.

Many verbs act on something - that something is the direct object in the accusative. Ask Wen? (whom) or Was? (what):

• Ich sehe den Mann. - I see the man. (Wen sehe ich? -> den Mann)
• Wir kaufen einen Tisch. - We’re buying a table.

The key simplification for A1: going from nominative to accusative, only the masculine forms change. Everything feminine, neuter and plural is identical in both cases.

Forms & patterns

Definite article (der/die/das):

Indefinite / negative / possessive (ein-words): the endings work the same way for ein, kein, mein, dein, sein…

Demonstrative dieser follows the der-pattern: dieser Mann -> diesen Mann (m), but diese Frau / dieses Kind stay the same.

Question words:

Verbs that take an accusative object (a few very common ones): haben, sehen, kaufen, brauchen, suchen, essen, trinken, lesen, mögen - and the fixed phrase es gibt + accusative (Es gibt einen Park. - There is a park.).

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ich sehe der Mann -> Ich sehe den Mann - a direct object is accusative; masculine der -> den.
• Er kauft ein Tisch -> Er kauft einen Tisch - masculine accusative: ein -> einen.
• Hast du mein Schlüssel? -> Hast du meinen Schlüssel? - mein -> meinen (masculine accusative).
• Ich sehe den Frau -> Ich sehe die Frau - don’t over-correct: feminine die never changes.
• Das ist einen Tisch -> Das ist ein Tisch - after sein use the nominative, not the accusative.

Tips

• Learn it as a single rule: only “der” becomes “den”. All masculine accusatives end in -n: den, einen, keinen, meinen, diesen (and the pronoun ihn, lesson 22).
• Use the questions: Wer/Was? finds the nominative subject; Wen/Was? finds the accusative object.
• sein, werden, bleiben are not “doing” verbs - both sides stay nominative: Das ist ein Hund., not “einen Hund”.
• If a noun is feminine, neuter or plural, you can stop worrying - it looks the same in nominative and accusative.

In short

German has two negators. Use kein to negate a noun that has ein or no article (kein Auto, keine Zeit); use nicht for everything else - verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and nouns with a definite article or possessive (nicht arbeiten, nicht mein Auto).

The rule

1. kein - negates a noun. Use kein when the positive sentence has ein/eine or no article at all:

• Ich habe ein Auto. -> Ich habe kein Auto. (I don’t have a car.)
• Ich habe Zeit. -> Ich habe keine Zeit. (I have no time.)

kein declines exactly like ein (and like mein, dein in lesson 9). So the masculine accusative is keinen:

• Ich trinke einen Kaffee. -> Ich trinke keinen Kaffee. (I don’t drink coffee.)

2. nicht - negates everything else. Use nicht for verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and for nouns that already have a definite article (der/die/das) or a possessive (mein, dein…):

• Ich arbeite nicht. (verb - I’m not working.)
• Er ist nicht groß. (adjective)
• Das ist nicht mein Auto. (possessive)
• Ich kenne den Lehrer nicht. (noun with den)

Position of nicht. This is the second tricky part:

• For whole-sentence negation, nicht goes to the end: Ich arbeite heute nicht.
• To negate one element (an adjective, an adverb, a prepositional phrase), nicht goes directly in front of it: Er ist nicht groß. / Ich gehe nicht ins Kino.
• nicht comes before the second part of the verb bracket - the separable prefix, the infinitive, or the participle: Ich rufe dich nicht an. / Ich kann nicht kommen.

Forms & patterns

kein takes the same endings as ein. At A1 you mainly need Nominativ (subject) and Akkusativ (object):

Note: ein has no plural - but kein does (keine Kinder = no children). The dative forms (keinem, keiner, keinen) come later with the dative case.

Quick parallel ein vs. kein (accusative object):

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ich habe nicht ein Auto. -> Ich habe kein Auto. - with ein (or no article) on a noun, use kein, never nicht ein.
• Ich habe nicht Zeit. -> Ich habe keine Zeit. - a no-article noun also needs kein, not nicht.
• Das ist kein mein Auto. -> Das ist nicht mein Auto. - with a possessive (or der/die/das) use nicht, not kein.
• Ich trinke kein Kaffee. -> Ich trinke keinen Kaffee. - Kaffee is masculine; the accusative object needs keinen.
• Ich verstehe nicht. vs. Ich verstehe nichts. - nicht = “not”, nichts = “nothing”. Don’t mix them up.

Tips

• Decision test: could the positive sentence have ein/eine or no article before the noun? -> use kein. Is there a der/die/das or a possessive? -> use nicht.
• kein = ein + k. It takes the exact same endings as ein (and mein), so the masculine accusative is keinen. Learn one set, get all three.
• For a flat “no” to the whole sentence, send nicht to the very end; to deny just one piece (an adjective, a place phrase, a prefix), put nicht right in front of it.
• nichts ends in -s and means “nothing”; nicht (no -s) means “not”. Ich esse nichts. = I’m eating nothing.

In short

Possessive articles say whose something is: mein (my), dein (your), sein (his/its), ihr (her/their), unser (our), euer (your-pl), Ihr (your-formal). They are ein-words: they take exactly the same endings as ein/kein. Two things must match - the owner picks the stem (sein/ihr…), and the noun owned picks the ending.

The rule

Each personal pronoun has its own possessive stem:

To these stems you add the ein-word endings, which depend on the gender, number and case of the thing owned - never on the owner:

• mein Vater (m), meine Mutter (f), mein Kind (n), meine Eltern (pl)
• Accusative masculine takes -en: Ich sehe meinen Bruder.

This is the double agreement. His and her show it clearly, because the stem alone tells you the owner, while the ending alone tells you the noun:

• sein Vater = his father - seine Mutter = his mother - seine Kinder = his children
• ihr Vater = her father - ihre Mutter = her mother - ihre Kinder = her children

So seine Mutter still means his mother (owner = er); the -e only agrees with Mutter being feminine.

Forms & patterns

Full declension of mein (all other possessives work the same way):

The endings (-, -e, -en, -em, -er) are identical to ein and kein - compare lesson 7 and 8.

The endings alone:

Watch euer: it drops the second e as soon as an ending is added.

(unser keeps its e: unser, unsere, unseren, unserem, unserer.)

Examples

Common mistakes

• sein Mutter -> seine Mutter - the ending agrees with the noun (Mutter = feminine), not with the owner.
• sein Vater for “her father” -> ihr Vater - the stem shows the owner; a female owner needs ihr, even before a masculine noun.
• Ich sehe mein Bruder -> Ich sehe meinen Bruder - accusative masculine needs -en.
• meine Vater -> mein Vater - masculine nominative has no ending.
• euer Kinder -> eure Kinder - euer loses its second e before an ending.

Tips

• If you know the ein/kein endings, you already know these: possessive = stem + ein-ending.
• Two-step check: first pick the stem by the owner (mein/dein/sein/ihr…), then pick the ending by the noun’s gender + case.
• sein = owner is er/es; ihr = owner is sie (she) or sie (they). Don’t let the noun’s gender fool you.
• euer -> drop the middle e whenever an ending follows: eure, euren, eurem, eurer.

In short

The six modal verbs (können, müssen, wollen, sollen, dürfen, mögen) change a sentence’s meaning: ability, necessity, wish, permission. They sit in position 2, and the real verb goes to the very end as an infinitive: Ich kann gut Deutsch sprechen. Their present tense is irregular - the stem vowel changes and ich and er/sie/es look identical with no -t.

The rule

A modal verb adds a flavour of can / must / want / should / may / like to a main verb. You almost always use two verbs together:

modal verb (conjugated, position 2) + … + main verb (infinitive, at the end)

This frame is called the sentence bracket (Satzklammer): the modal opens it in position 2, the infinitive closes it at the very end.

In a yes/no question the modal jumps to position 1, the infinitive still stays at the end: Darf ich hier rauchen? - Kannst du mir helfen?

The big irregularity: in the singular (ich, du, er/sie/es) most modals change their stem vowel, and ich = er/sie/es with no ending -t. The plural (wir, ihr, sie/Sie) is regular and uses the infinitive stem.

Forms & patterns

Present tense of all six modals (plus the special form möchte):

Notice: ich kann / er kann, ich muss / er muss, ich will / er will, ich darf / er darf - same form, no -t. Only sollen keeps its vowel (soll).

möchte = the polite “would like”, a form of mögen. Use it for orders and wishes - it is softer than wollen:

What each modal means:

Important contrast - the three “must” sentences:

So the opposite of müssen is nicht müssen (need not) - not nicht dürfen (forbidden). In everyday speech nicht brauchen … zu also means “need not”: Du brauchst heute nicht zu kommen.

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ich kann sprechen Deutsch. -> Ich kann gut Deutsch sprechen. - the infinitive must go to the end of the clause.
• Er kannt / er musst / er willt -> er kann / er muss / er will - the er/sie/es form takes no -t and matches ich.
• Ich will einen Kaffee (in a café) -> Ich möchte einen Kaffee. - wollen sounds blunt/demanding; use möchte to be polite.
• Du darfst nicht gehen meaning “you don’t have to go” -> Du musst nicht gehen. - nicht dürfen = forbidden, nicht müssen = no obligation.
• Ich kann zu schwimmen / Ich muss zu arbeiten -> Ich kann schwimmen / Ich muss arbeiten. - German modals take a bare infinitive, never zu.

Tips

• Memory hook: ich and er/sie/es are twins for every modal - ich kann / er kann, ich muss / er muss. Learn one, get the other free.
• Build the sentence by “bracketing”: first say the modal in position 2, then push the action verb to the very end as an infinitive.
• For ordering food, asking favours and being polite, reach for möchte, not wollen: Ich möchte…, Möchtest du…?
• For the spoken past, you mostly use the Präteritum of modals (not the Perfekt): konnte (could), wollte (wanted), musste (had to), sollte, durfte, mochte. Example: Gestern musste ich arbeiten und konnte nicht kommen.

In short

In a German main clause the conjugated verb is always the second element (the V2 rule). Position 1 holds exactly one element. If a second verb part exists (an infinitive, a past participle or a separated prefix), it jumps to the very end, framing the sentence in a bracket (Satzklammer).

The rule

Count the verb’s position by elements, not by words: a whole phrase like jeden Tag or mein bester Freund is one element.

• V2: the conjugated (finite) verb is the second element. Position 1 carries one element only - usually the subject, but it can just as well be a time or place phrase, an object, etc.
• Inversion: if something other than the subject opens the sentence, the subject slides to the spot right after the verb (position 3). The verb itself never moves.
  • Ich gehe heute ins Kino. -> Heute gehe ich ins Kino. (the verb gehe stays in slot 2)
• The sentence bracket (Satzklammer): when a sentence has two verb parts, they split. The finite verb stays in position 2 (the left bracket); the second part - an infinitive (with modals), a past participle (Perfekt), or a separated prefix - goes to the very end (the right bracket). Everything else sits inside the bracket.
  • Ich muss heute arbeiten. (modal + infinitive)
  • Ich habe gestern gearbeitet. (Perfekt: haben + participle)
  • Ich kaufe morgen ein. (separable verb einkaufen: prefix ein at the end)
• Verb first (V1): yes/no questions and imperatives put the finite verb in position 1: Gehst du heute ins Kino? / Geh nach Hause!

Forms & patterns

V2 with inversion - the verb stays put, the subject and the front phrase swap:

Verb-first sentences (V1):

Examples

Common mistakes

• Heute ich gehe ins Kino -> Heute gehe ich ins Kino - after a front phrase, verb before subject (inversion); the verb must stay in slot 2.
• Ich heute muss arbeiten -> Ich muss heute arbeiten - the finite verb is element 2, not 3; time words go after it.
• Ich muss arbeiten heute -> Ich muss heute arbeiten - the infinitive closes the bracket; nothing comes after it.
• Ich einkaufe heute -> Ich kaufe heute ein - separable prefixes split off and go to the end.
• Ich habe gesehen einen Film -> Ich habe einen Film gesehen - the participle is the right bracket and stands last.

Tips

• “Verb in slot 2, no matter what.” Whatever you put first, the finite verb follows immediately.
• Picture two hands holding the sentence: the finite verb is the left hand (slot 2), the second verb part is the right hand (the end). Everything else sits between them.
• Only one element before the verb. If you wrote two things in front, one of them belongs after the verb.
• Test for inversion: start a sentence with heute, morgen or hier and you will hear the verb-then-subject flip automatically.

In short

German has two question types. A W-question starts with a question word, then the verb in position 2, then the subject (Wo wohnst du?). A yes/no question puts the verb first (Wohnst du hier?) and is answered with ja, nein, or doch.

The rule

1. W-questions (open questions). Word order is: question word - verb (position 2) - subject - rest.

The verb still keeps position 2, exactly as in a statement - the question word simply fills position 1 (see Lesson 11).

2. Yes/no questions (closed questions). Move the conjugated verb to position 1; the subject follows. Nothing else changes.

3. Answering. Use ja to confirm and nein to deny. Use doch to contradict a negative question:

• Magst du das nicht? - Doch, ich mag es! (= yes, I do, against your assumption)
• Magst du das? - Ja, ich mag es. (normal positive question)

Forms & patterns

The question words / Die Fragewörter

wer declines for case (it points to a person):

welch- declines like dieser (it agrees with the following noun in gender, number, case):

Welcher Mann? Welche Frau? Welches Kind? Welche Leute?

was für (ein) - the ein-part declines like the indefinite article for the noun’s case; für here is not a preposition and does not force the accusative:

• Was für ein Hund ist das? (nominative, masc.)
• Was für einen Wagen kaufst du? (accusative, masc.)
• Plural / uncountable: drop ein - Was für Bücher liest du?

Examples

Common mistakes

• Wo du wohnst? -> Wo wohnst du? - the verb must stay in position 2, before the subject.
• Du hast Zeit? (as a real question) -> Hast du Zeit? - a true yes/no question starts with the verb; subject-first only works as an intonation echo.
• Wer hilfst du? -> Wem hilfst du? - helfen takes the dative, so use wem, not wer.
• Welche Buch? -> Welches Buch? - welch- agrees with the noun; Buch is neuter -> welches.
• Magst du das nicht? - Ja! -> Doch! - after a negative question, confirming the positive needs doch, not ja.

Tips

• All the open question words start with W (the “W-questions”): wer, was, wo, wann, wie, warum…
• Test for a yes/no question: if “yes” or “no” can answer it, the verb goes first.
• Distinguish the three “where”: wo = static location, wohin = direction to, woher = origin (Wo? Wohin? Woher?).
• doch is your “yes, actually!” button - keep it ready whenever someone asks a negative question.

In short

Many German verbs carry a prefix. With a separable verb the prefix is stressed and splits off in a main clause, landing at the very end (aufstehen -> Ich stehe um 7 Uhr auf.). With an inseparable verb the prefix is unstressed and never splits (verstehen -> Ich verstehe das.). Stress is what tells the two apart.

The rule

1. Separable verbs (trennbare Verben). The prefix is stressed (‘AUFstehen). In a normal main clause the conjugated stem goes to position 2 and the prefix jumps to the end of the clause:

Common separable prefixes: ab-, an-, auf-, aus-, ein-, mit-, nach-, vor-, zu-, zurück-, weg-, los-, fern-.

2. The prefix rejoins (stays attached to the stem) in three situations:

• the infinitive, e.g. after a modal verb: Ich muss früh aufstehen.
• a subordinate clause, where the whole verb sits at the end: …, weil ich früh aufstehe.
• the Perfekt, where -ge- is inserted between prefix and stem: Ich bin früh aufgestanden. / Wir haben eingekauft.

3. Inseparable verbs (untrennbare Verben). The prefix is unstressed (ver’STEHen) and is fused to the verb forever - it never splits, and the Perfekt participle takes no -ge-:

The eight inseparable prefixes are be-, emp-, ent-, er-, ge-, miss-, ver-, zer-.

Forms & patterns

Conjugation of a separable verb (anrufen, “to call”) - the stem conjugates normally, the prefix waits at the end:

Same verb across clause types:

Separable vs. inseparable in the Perfekt (note where -ge- goes - or doesn’t):

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ich aufstehe um 7 Uhr. -> Ich stehe um 7 Uhr auf. - in a main clause the prefix must split off and move to the end.
• Ich rufe an dich. -> Ich rufe dich an. - the prefix goes to the very end, after the object, not right after the stem.
• …, weil ich früh stehe auf. -> …, weil ich früh aufstehe. - in a subordinate clause the prefix stays joined and the whole verb sits at the end.
• Ich habe gekauft ein. / Ich habe geeinkauft. -> Ich habe eingekauft. - in the Perfekt the -ge- slots inside: ein-ge-kauft.
• Ich habe das gebezahlt / geverstanden. -> Ich habe das bezahlt / verstanden. - inseparable verbs form the participle without -ge-.

Tips

• Stress test: say the verb aloud. Stress on the prefix (‘AUFstehen) = separable; stress on the stem (ver’STEHen) = inseparable.
• Memorise the eight never-split prefixes as a chant: be- emp- ent- er- ge- miss- ver- zer-. Everything else that splits is separable.
• In the Perfekt, picture -ge- as the filling in a sandwich: separable verbs slot it between prefix and stem (an-ge-rufen), inseparable verbs have no filling at all (ver-standen).
• When you learn a new prefixed verb, learn it as a whole sentence so the prefix lands in the right place: not just anrufen, but Ich rufe dich an.

In short

The imperative gives commands, requests and instructions. There are three forms depending on whom you address: du (one friend), ihr (several friends) and Sie (formal). The verb always comes first, and a separable prefix goes to the very end (Steh auf!).

The rule

German has separate command forms for the three ways of saying “you”.

du-form (one person you address with du): take the verb stem - usually with no ending. It is the present-tense du form minus -st and minus the pronoun.

• Komm! Geh! Mach! Lern! Trink!
• A strong e -> i / e -> ie vowel change stays: geben -> Gib!, lesen -> Lies!, essen -> Iss!, nehmen -> Nimm!, sprechen -> Sprich!
• But the a -> ä change does not appear: fahren -> Fahr! (not Fähr!), schlafen -> Schlaf!, laufen -> Lauf!
• Stems ending in -t / -d (and -m / -n after a consonant) add -e: arbeiten -> Arbeite!, warten -> Warte!, öffnen -> Öffne!, atmen -> Atme!

ihr-form (several people): exactly the present-tense ihr form, just without the pronoun.

• Kommt! Macht! Arbeitet! Gebt! Nehmt!

Sie-form (formal, one or more): the present-tense Sie form, but the pronoun Sie stays and follows the verb.

• Kommen Sie! Machen Sie! Geben Sie mir bitte das Buch.

wir-form for “let’s…”: the present-tense wir form with wir after the verb.

• Gehen wir! Machen wir eine Pause!

sein is irregular: Sei! / Seid! / Seien Sie! And haben drops the -e in du: Hab! / Habt! / Haben Sie!

Forms & patterns

Regular verb machen across all command forms:

Strong verbs with e -> i / e -> ie (the change shows only in the du form):

Irregular sein and the -e helper:

Separable verbs: the verb goes first, the prefix goes to the end:

Examples

Common mistakes

• Du komm! / Ihr macht! -> Komm! / Macht! - drop the pronoun for du and ihr (but keep it for Sie and wir).
• Gibe mir das -> Gib mir das - strong e -> i/ie verbs take no -e ending in the du-form.
• Fähr langsam! -> Fahr langsam! - the a -> ä change does not happen in the imperative.
• Bist ruhig! -> Sei ruhig! - sein uses Sei / Seid / Seien Sie, never the present-tense forms.
• Auf steh! / Steh! -> Steh auf! - the separable prefix must go to the very end, not stay attached or get dropped.

Tips

• Build the du-form from the present-tense du: drop -st and the pronoun - du gibst -> Gib!, du arbeitest -> Arbeite! (just remember: no umlaut, so du fährst -> Fahr!).
• To make a negative command, simply add nicht or kein: Trink nicht so schnell!, Hab keine Angst!
• Soften a command with bitte and mal: Komm mal her, Nimm bitte Platz, Mach mal das Licht an. They make an order sound friendly, not bossy.
• The wir-form is the everyday way to say “let’s”: Gehen wir!, Fangen wir an! (= Lass uns anfangen!).

In short

A small, fixed group of prepositions - durch, für, gegen, ohne, um, bis, entlang - always takes the accusative, no matter whether there is movement or not. Learn them as one chunk and the noun after them switches to the accusative case.

The rule

After these prepositions the following noun phrase stands in the accusative. The only article that visibly changes is the masculine one: der -> den, ein -> einen. Feminine, neuter and plural articles look the same as in the nominative, so you mostly only “see” the case on masculine nouns and on pronouns (mich, dich, ihn, uns …).

Two special points:

• entlang is a postposition here: it comes after its noun - die Straße entlang (along the street), not entlang die Straße.
• ohne normally takes a bare noun with no article: ohne Auto, ohne Geld.

Forms & patterns

Accusative article forms after these prepositions:

Personal pronouns in the accusative (see lesson 22):

Contractions (preposition + das):

These short forms are normal in speech and writing. There is no contraction with gegen, ohne, bis, entlang.

Examples

Common mistakes

• für der Mann -> für den Mann - masculine der becomes den in the accusative.
• ohne mir -> ohne mich - these prepositions take the accusative pronoun, not the dative.
• entlang die Straße -> die Straße entlang - entlang follows its noun here.
• ohne ein Auto -> ohne Auto - ohne usually drops the article.
• für das Kind (always spelled out) -> fürs Kind - in everyday German the contraction is normal.

Tips

• Memorise the set as a rhythmic chunk: “durch - für - gegen - ohne - um” (plus bis and entlang). If a preposition is on this list, reach for the accusative automatically.
• Unlike the two-way prepositions (lesson 23), these never switch case - no motion test needed. Accusative, full stop.
• Watch the masculine article: that is the one place the case is visible (den/einen).
• um + clock time = um 8 Uhr; gegen + clock time = approximately that time (gegen 8 Uhr = around 8).

In short

When an adjective stands after the noun with sein, werden or bleiben, it takes no ending - it never changes (Das Haus ist groß; Die Häuser sind groß). Most adjectives also work as adverbs with the very same unchanged form (Er fährt schnell).

The rule

There are two “easy” uses where a German adjective never changes its form - plus one special adverb, gern, to learn alongside them.

1. Predicative adjective - after sein, werden or bleiben. The adjective describes the subject but sits after the verb. It takes no ending at all, no matter the gender, the number or the case of the subject.

• Der Tee ist heiß. / Die Suppe ist heiß. / Das Wasser ist heiß. / Die Getränke sind heiß. - same word heiß every time.
• werden = becoming: Es wird kalt. (It is getting cold.) / Der Mann wird alt.
• bleiben = staying: Bitte bleib ruhig! (Stay calm.)

Contrast: before a noun the adjective does take an ending - der heiße Tee, eine kalte Suppe. That attributive declension is the big topic of lesson 25; for now, keep the adjective after the verb and you never need an ending.

2. Adverb - describing how an action happens. In German you simply use the same adjective form with no special ending (unlike English, which adds -ly).

• Sie singt schön. (She sings beautifully.) - not schönly.
• Er arbeitet schnell. / Das Kind schläft ruhig.
• Degree words sharpen it: sehr (very), zu (too), ganz (quite/very), ziemlich (fairly), wirklich (really): sehr gut, zu klein, ziemlich teuer, wirklich toll.

3. gern(e) - the special adverb for liking to do something. There is no verb “to like” + activity in everyday German; you add gern to the normal verb. Its forms work like a comparison:

gern and gerne are the same word - both are correct.

Forms & patterns

Predicative adjective - one form for everything (here: groß):

Adjective vs. adverb - same word, different job:

Degree adverb + adjective: sehr / zu / ganz / ziemlich / wirklich + adjective -> sehr schön, zu laut, ganz einfach, ziemlich müde, wirklich nett.

Examples

Common mistakes

• Das Haus ist großes -> Das Haus ist groß - after sein/werden/bleiben the adjective has no ending.
• Die Häuser sind große -> Die Häuser sind groß - predicative adjectives stay endingless in the plural too.
• Sie singt schönly / Er fährt schnelly -> Sie singt schön, Er fährt schnell - German has no -ly; the adverb is the bare adjective.
• Ich mag Kaffee trinken -> Ich trinke gern Kaffee - to say you like doing something, add gern to the normal verb.
• Ich trinke gerner Tee -> Ich trinke lieber Tee - the comparison of gern is irregular: gern -> lieber -> am liebsten.

Tips

• Memory hook: after the verb, no ending (ist/wird/bleibt + plain adjective). Endings only appear before a noun (lesson 25).
• English adds -ly to make an adverb; German changes nothing - use the same word.
• Learn gern - lieber - am liebsten as a fixed trio, just like gut - besser - am besten.
• gern and gerne are interchangeable; sehr, zu, ganz, ziemlich and wirklich slot in right before the adjective to turn the volume up or down.

In short

Coordinating conjunctions join two equal main clauses without changing the word order: the verb stays in position 2. The five A1 words are und, aber, oder, denn, sondern (mnemonic: ADUSO). Use sondern only after a negation (“not X, but rather Y”).

The rule

A coordinating conjunction sits in “position 0” - in front of the second clause but outside it. It does not count as the first sentence element, so the verb of the second clause stays in position 2, exactly as if the clause stood alone.

Compare with subordinating conjunctions (weil, dass - lesson 28), which push the verb to the end, and with conjunctive adverbs (deshalb - lesson 44), which sit in position 1 and force inversion (verb before subject).

denn and weil both mean because, but denn keeps normal main-clause order and weil sends the verb to the end. denn also never starts a sentence.

The meanings:

• und = and (adds)
• oder = or (alternative)
• aber = but (contrast)
• denn = because / for (reason; main-clause order)
• sondern = but rather (corrects a negation: nicht X, sondern Y)

Forms & patterns

Comma rules:

Paired connectors (Doppelkonjunktionen) - link two equal parts:

Note: weder … noch is already negative, so do not add nicht or kein.

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ich bin müde, denn ich gehe schlafen (wrong meaning) -> Ich gehe schlafen, denn ich bin müde - denn gives the reason; put the reason after denn.
• Ich bleibe, weil ich bin krank -> …, weil ich krank bin - weil sends the verb to the end; denn keeps V2.
• Nicht Tee, aber Kaffee -> Nicht Tee, sondern Kaffee - after a negation use sondern, not aber.
• Deshalb ich bleibe zu Hause -> Deshalb bleibe ich zu Hause - deshalb causes inversion; coordinating conjunctions do not.
• Ich esse weder Fleisch nicht noch Fisch -> Ich esse weder Fleisch noch Fisch - weder … noch is already negative.

Tips

• Remember ADUSO (aber, denn, und, sondern, oder) - these five never change the word order.
• Quick test: if you can swap in a conjunctive adverb and the verb moves, it was not coordinating.
• sondern = “no, the other one”: it only works after nicht or kein; otherwise use aber.
• denn vs weil: same meaning, but denn = comfortable V2 order, weil = verb kicked to the end.

In short

Ordinals (1st, 2nd, 3rd…) are adjectives: build them with number + -te up to 19 and number + -ste from 20, then add normal adjective endings (der erste Tag, am zweiten Mai). For dates you write a period after the figure (3. Mai) and say “on” a date with am + ordinal + -en. Years are just the bare number - no preposition.

The rule

Start from the cardinal number you already know (see lesson 6) and add a suffix:

• 2-19: add -te -> zwei -> zweite, vier -> vierte, zehn -> zehnte, neunzehn -> neunzehnte.
• from 20: add -ste -> zwanzig -> zwanzigste, hundert -> hundertste, tausend -> tausendste.

Four forms are irregular and just have to be memorised:

Because ordinals are adjectives, they never stand bare in front of a noun - they take the same endings as any other adjective. The three endings you need most are:

Forms & patterns

The ordinals at a glance

Dates / Das Datum

Ask Der Wievielte ist heute? (“the howmanyeth is it today?”) or, with haben, Den Wievielten haben wir heute? Answer in the case the question uses - nominative der after ist, accusative den after haben:

In writing, a date figure always gets a period: 3. Mai, am 3. Mai, numeric 03.05.2024 (day.month.year). To say “on” a date, use am + ordinal + -en: am dritten Mai, am ersten Januar. The weekend is am Wochenende.

Years / Jahreszahlen

A year is just the bare number - no “in” the way English uses it. Optionally add im Jahr(e).

1100-1999 are read in hundreds (neunzehnhundert…); from 2000 they are read in thousands (zweitausend…).

Floors & ranking / Stockwerke & Rang

Floors use ordinals too: im ersten Stock (first floor up), im zweiten Stock; the ground floor is das Erdgeschoss. When an ordinal stands alone as a noun it is capitalised: Sie wurde Erste (she came first), Karl der Große (Charlemagne).

Examples

Common mistakes

• der dreite / der dreitte -> der dritte - 3rd is irregular; memorise it.
• am zweite Mai -> am zweiten Mai - after am (dative) the ending is -en, not -e.
• zwanzigte, hundertte -> zwanzigste, hundertste - from 20 the suffix is -ste, not -te.
• in 2024 -> 2024 / im Jahr 2024 - German does not put “in” before a bare year (English habit).
• 3 Mai / 3ter Mai -> 3. Mai - write a single period after the figure, nothing else.

Tips

• Easy split: up to 19 -> -te, from 20 -> -ste. (“small -te, big -ste”).
• Only four irregulars: 1 erste, 3 dritte, 7 siebte, 8 achte - everything else is fully regular.
• A period after a number means “-th”: 1. = erste, am 1. = am ersten. Read the ending from the trigger word (der -> -e, am -> -en).
• Dates are adjectives in disguise - if you can decline gut (lesson 25), you can decline erste, zweite, dritte.

In short

The Perfekt is the normal way to talk about the past in spoken German. It is built from haben or sein in position 2 plus a past participle (Partizip II) at the very end of the clause. Use it where English uses the simple past: Ich habe gestern gearbeitet = “I worked yesterday” (not “I have worked”).

The rule

A Perfekt sentence has two parts that form a bracket around the rest of the clause:

Building the participle (Partizip II):

• Weak (regular): ge- + stem + -t. machen -> gemacht, kaufen -> gekauft. Stems ending in -t/-d add an extra e: arbeiten -> gearbeitet, reden -> geredet.
• Strong (irregular): ge- + stem (often with a vowel change) + -en. sehen -> gesehen, trinken -> getrunken, schreiben -> geschrieben, gehen -> gegangen. These must be learned as a list.
• No ge- with inseparable prefixes (be-, ver-, ent-, er-, ge-, zer-) and with -ieren verbs: bezahlen -> bezahlt, verstehen -> verstanden, studieren -> studiert.
• Separable verbs put -ge- between the prefix and the stem: einkaufen -> eingekauft, aufstehen -> aufgestanden, anrufen -> angerufen.

haben or sein?

• Use sein with verbs of motion to a destination (gehen, kommen, fahren, fliegen, laufen, reisen) and change of state (aufstehen, werden, passieren). Also the fixed three: sein, bleiben (and werden).
• Use haben for everything else - and for all verbs with an accusative object.

Forms & patterns

Auxiliaries conjugated (the part that actually changes):

Common strong/irregular participles to memorise:

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ich habe gefahren -> Ich bin gefahren - motion to a place takes sein.
• Ich bin das Auto gefahren -> Ich habe das Auto gefahren - with an accusative object, use haben.
• Ich habe gemacht viel gestern (participle in the middle) -> the participle goes to the END: Ich habe gestern viel gemacht.
• gebezahlt / gestudiert -> bezahlt / studiert - no ge- with inseparable prefixes or -ieren verbs.
• geeinkauft -> eingekauft - separable verbs put -ge- inside: prefix + ge + stem.

Tips

• Memory hook for sein: it pairs with verbs you could draw an arrow for (you move from A to B) or where you “become something new” (change of state). Everything else: haben.
• If the verb has an accusative object, the auxiliary is almost always haben.
• The auxiliary carries the person ending; the participle never changes - learn each participle once and reuse it for all persons.
• Learn strong participles in small sets (e.g. trinken/getrunken, singen/gesungen) - the vowel patterns repeat.

In short

The dative is the case of the indirect object - the receiver or beneficiary of an action. Ask Wem? (“to whom?”): Ich gebe dem Mann das Buch = I give the book to the man. It also follows certain verbs (helfen, danken, gefallen…) and many prepositions.

The rule

In a sentence like Ich gebe dem Mann das Buch, there are two objects:

• das Buch (accusative) - the thing being given, the direct object (Was? / Wen?)
• dem Mann (dative) - the person receiving it, the indirect object (Wem?)

Only the articles (and a final -n on plural nouns) change; the noun usually stays the same.

Note the two extra changes in the plural: the article becomes den and the noun adds -n (mit den Kindern, mit den Freunden). Nouns whose plural already ends in -n or -s take no extra -n (mit den Frauen, mit den Autos).

Dative verbs. Some verbs simply take a dative object (usually with no accusative). The person is in the dative:

Ich helfe dir. - I help you.   Das Buch gehört meinem Bruder. - The book belongs to my brother.

Common ones: helfen, danken, antworten, folgen, gratulieren, passen, gehören, gefallen, schmecken.

The “to please / to belong” pattern. With gefallen, schmecken, gehören, the English subject becomes the German dative, and the German subject is the thing:

Das Essen schmeckt mir. = Literally “The food tastes to me” -> I like the food. Berlin gefällt uns. = “Berlin pleases us” -> We like Berlin.

Forms & patterns

Dative of articles and ein-words:

Memory hook for the definite article: dem - dem - der - den. The endings -em / -er / -en repeat on all ein-words (einem, einer, keinen, meinem…).

Word order: when both objects are full nouns, the dative comes first: Ich gebe dem Kind den Ball. (See pronouns for the order with pronouns.)

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ich helfe dich -> Ich helfe dir - helfen takes the dative, not the accusative.
• mit den Kinder -> mit den Kindern - plural dative adds -n to the noun.
• Ich danke den Mann -> dem Mann - masculine dative is dem, not den (den is plural/accusative).
• Ich mag das Essen when you mean “tastes good” -> say Das Essen schmeckt mir - with schmecken/gefallen the person is dative, the thing is the subject.
• Das gefällt mich -> Das gefällt mir - gefallen needs a dative person.

Tips

• Always ask Wem? to find the dative; ask Wen/Was? for the accusative.
• Learn dative verbs as a fixed list - chant “helfen, danken, gefallen, gehören, antworten, folgen, passen, gratulieren, schmecken”.
• For gefallen / schmecken / gehören, mentally translate as “is pleasing to / tastes to / belongs to” - then the dative person is obvious.
• Endings rhyme: dem - dem - der - den for der/das/die/die(pl); the same -em/-er/-en show up on ein, kein, mein.

In short

A fixed set of prepositions - aus, bei, mit, nach, seit, von, zu (plus gegenüber) - always takes the dative, so the noun after them goes into the dative case. Several of them merge with the article into short contractions like zum, zur, beim, vom.

The rule

After these prepositions the following noun phrase always stands in the dative, with no motion test - unlike the two-way prepositions in lesson 23. Remember the chant “aus - bei - mit - nach - seit - von - zu”; the eighth member, gegenüber, behaves the same way but often comes after its noun or pronoun.

Three things to watch:

• gegenüber usually follows a pronoun (mir gegenüber) and may come before or after a noun (gegenüber dem Park = dem Park gegenüber).
• von … bis = from … to/until (von Montag bis Freitag, von 9 bis 17 Uhr).
• seit describes something still going on; German uses the present tense where English often uses the present perfect (Ich wohne seit 2020 hier = I have been living here since 2020).

Forms & patterns

Dative article forms after these prepositions:

Note the plural: the article becomes den and the noun adds an -n (unless it already ends in -n or -s): mit den Freunden, aus den Häusern.

Contractions (Verschmelzungen) - very high-frequency, standard in speech and writing:

“to” in German - three different words:

Special fixed phrases: nach Hause = (going) home, zu Hause = (being) at home.

Examples

Common mistakes

• mit der Bus -> mit dem Bus - mit takes the dative, so masculine der becomes dem.
• seit zwei Jahre -> seit zwei Jahren - the plural dative adds -n to the noun.
• Ich gehe zu Hause -> Ich gehe nach Hause - movement home = nach Hause; only being there = zu Hause.
• nach meiner Oma / zu Berlin -> zu meiner Oma / nach Berlin - zu for people, nach for cities/countries with no article.
• zu dem Arzt (always spelled out) -> zum Arzt - the contraction zum/zur/beim/vom is the normal everyday form.

Tips

• Sing the set as one rhythmic chunk: “aus-bei-mit-nach-seit-von-zu” - if the preposition is on this list, switch to the dative automatically (and don’t forget the eighth, gegenüber).
• Decide “to” with a quick test: a bare city/country -> nach; a person or named place -> zu; going into a space -> in + accusative.
• The contractions zum, zur, beim, vom (and am, im) are not optional shortcuts - they are the standard form; spelling them out sounds stiff or wrong.
• seit + present tense in German covers English “since” and “for” with ongoing actions: seit Montag, seit drei Wochen.

In short

When a personal pronoun is the object of a verb, it changes form. The accusative (the direct object) gives mich, dich, ihn, sie, es, uns, euch, sie/Sie; the dative (the indirect object) gives mir, dir, ihm, ihr, ihm, uns, euch, ihnen/Ihnen. With two objects, a pronoun comes before a noun, and when both are pronouns the accusative comes before the dative.

The rule

You already know the nominative pronouns (the subject: ich, du, er…). As soon as a pronoun is acted on, it takes a different form:

• Accusative = the direct object (the thing/person directly affected): Ich sehe ihn (I see him).
• Dative = the indirect object (the receiver, often “to/for someone”): Ich gebe ihm das Buch (I give him the book).

Watch the third person closely, because that is where most errors happen:

• er -> ihn (acc) / ihm (dat)
• sie (she) -> sie (acc) / ihr (dat)
• es -> es (acc) / ihm (dat)
• sie (they) -> sie (acc) / ihnen (dat)

Many everyday phrases are simply fixed dative expressions: Wie geht es dir?, Das gehört mir, Es tut mir leid, Kannst du mir helfen?, Ich danke dir.

Forms & patterns

Full table (nominative shown for comparison):

Word order with two objects. Three patterns to remember:

Memory hook: a pronoun always wants to stand near the verb; and between two pronouns, “what” (acc.) comes before “to whom” (dat.).

Examples

Common mistakes

• Kannst du mich helfen? -> Kannst du mir helfen? - helfen takes the dative, not the accusative.
• Ich gebe dir es. -> Ich gebe es dir. - with two pronouns the accusative comes first.
• Wie geht es du? -> Wie geht es dir? - fixed dative expression; never the nominative du.
• Ich sehe er. -> Ich sehe ihn. - the direct object of sehen must be accusative ihn, not er.
• Das gehört mich. -> Das gehört mir. - gehören takes the dative.

Tips

• Learn the dative “trio” by heart - mir, dir, ihm - they unlock the most common verbs (helfen, danken, gehören, gefallen) and phrases (Wie geht es dir?, Es tut mir leid).
• Rule of thumb for the position: pronoun before noun, and between two pronouns Akkusativ vor Dativ (think: short “es/ihn/sie” jumps to the front).
• Only er/sie/es and sie (plural) really change between the cases in the third person - master those four and the rest (mich/mir, dich/dir…) follow easily.
• If you are unsure whether a verb needs accusative or dative, memorise the verb together with its case: jemandem (Dat.) helfen, jemanden (Akk.) sehen.

In short

Nine prepositions take either the accusative or the dative. Movement toward a goal (Wohin? - where to?) takes the accusative; a fixed location (Wo? - where?) takes the dative.

The rule

There are nine two-way prepositions (Wechselpräpositionen):

The case is not fixed by the preposition - it is chosen by the meaning:

• Wohin? (direction / a change of place) -> ACCUSATIVE Ich gehe in die Schule. (I go into the school.) Ich hänge das Bild an die Wand. (I hang the picture onto the wall.) Ich lege das Buch auf den Tisch. (I put the book onto the table.)

• Wo? (location / no change of place) -> DATIVE Ich bin in der Schule. (I am in the school.) Das Bild hängt an der Wand. (The picture hangs on the wall.) Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch. (The book lies on the table.)

The verb is your best clue. “Put” verbs describe a movement and trigger the accusative; “be-positioned” verbs describe a state and trigger the dative.

Forms & patterns

Article forms after a two-way preposition:

Note: in the dative plural the noun also adds -n (auf den Tischen, unless the plural already ends in -n/-s).

Common contractions (very frequent in everyday German):

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ich gehe in der Schule. -> Ich gehe in die Schule. - “gehen” is movement (Wohin?), so accusative.
• Das Buch liegt auf den Tisch. -> Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch. - “liegen” is position (Wo?), so dative.
• Ich hänge das Bild an der Wand. -> Ich hänge das Bild an die Wand. - hanging it up is a movement; the result-state would be “an der Wand”.
• Ich bin ins Büro. -> Ich bin im Büro. - “sein” states a location (Wo?), so dative/contraction “im”.
• zwischen zwei Lastwagens -> zwischen zwei Lastwagen - dative plural needs -n, but “Lastwagen” is already invariable in the plural.

Tips

• Ask one question before choosing the case: Wohin? (a goal, motion) -> Akkusativ; Wo? (a place, rest) -> Dativ.
• Learn the verbs in pairs: action verb + Akk. vs. position verb + Dat. - legen/liegen, stellen/stehen, setzen/sitzen, hängen/hängen.
• Memory hook: Akkusativ = Action/Arrow (you move toward a target); Dativ = Da (it’s already “there”).
• The contractions am, im, ans, ins, aufs are normal speech - use them, but remember am/im signal “Wo?” and ans/ins/aufs signal “Wohin?”.

In short

The Präteritum is the one-word past tense. It is the standard written past (stories, reports, news), but in speech Germans only use it for a handful of very common verbs: sein -> war, haben -> hatte, werden -> wurde, and the modals (konnte, musste, wollte, sollte, durfte, mochte). For most other verbs, everyday speech uses the Perfekt (lesson 19).

The rule

The Präteritum is one finite verb in position 2 - there is no auxiliary and no participle. Three verb groups behave differently:

1. The everyday-speech verbs - learn these as fixed forms; you will use them constantly:

Note the modals lose their umlaut in the Präteritum: können -> konnte, müssen -> musste, dürfen -> durfte, mögen -> mochte (with -ch-); wollen -> wollte and sollen -> sollte never had one.

2. Weak (regular) verbs = stem + -te + ending. The marker is -te-. Crucially, ich and er/sie/es take no extra ending:

If the stem ends in -t or -d (or a tricky consonant cluster), insert an -e- for pronunciation: arbeiten -> arbeitete, reden -> redete, öffnen -> öffnete.

3. Strong (irregular) verbs change the stem vowel and, like the weak verbs, take no ending in ich and er/sie/es. The vowel change must be learned per verb: gehen -> ging, kommen -> kam, fahren -> fuhr, sehen -> sah.

Forms & patterns

The endings are the same for weak and strong verbs - only the stem differs (weak adds -te-, strong changes the vowel):

Common strong verbs to memorise (ich/er form shown):

Examples

Common mistakes

• ich machtee / er machtte -> ich machte, er machte - weak ich and er/sie/es get no extra ending after -te.
• ich gingte / er kamte -> ich ging, er kam - strong verbs change the vowel and add no -te-; never mix the two.
• ich könnte arbeiten (meaning “I could / was able to”) -> ich konnte arbeiten - the past modal loses its umlaut; könnte is the Konjunktiv (“would be able to”, lesson 37).
• er arbeitete written as er arbeitte -> er arbeitete - stems in -t/-d need the connecting -e- (-ete).
• Ich war gegangen ins Kino -> Ich ging ins Kino / Ich bin ins Kino gegangen - don’t mix Präteritum and Perfekt; pick one tense.

Tips

• Speech rule of thumb: use the Präteritum for sein, haben, werden and the modals; for almost everything else in conversation, use the Perfekt (lesson 19). In writing, the Präteritum dominates.
• One spelling clue: if you see -te- in the middle, it is a weak verb; a changed vowel with no -te- means it is strong.
• The forms for ich and er/sie/es are always identical in the Präteritum - that is true for every verb (war/war, machte/machte, ging/ging).
• Strong Präteritum and Partizip II often share a vowel (kam - gekommen, schrieb - geschrieben), so learning them together saves effort.

In short

When an adjective stands before a noun (der gute Mann), it takes an ending. Which ending depends on the article in front of it: weak after der/die/das (only -e or -en), mixed after ein/kein/mein, and strong when there is no article. Guiding idea: something must show the case - if the article doesn’t, the adjective does.

The rule

This only happens with attributive adjectives - adjectives before the noun. After sein/werden/bleiben the adjective stays endingless (Der Mann ist gut - see lesson 16). There are three patterns:

1. Weak - after the definite article der/die/das and der-words (dieser, jeder, jede, alle, welcher). The article already shows gender and case, so the adjective does the least possible work: it is just -e in five “easy” spots (the whole nominative singular, plus the feminine and neuter accusative) and -en everywhere else.

der gute Mann, die gute Frau, das gute Kind - but den guten Mann and die guten Kinder.

2. Mixed - after the indefinite article ein/kein and the possessives mein, dein, sein…. These look just like the weak forms, except in the three spots where ein itself has no ending. There the adjective must jump in and carry the gender:

ein guter Mann (masc.), ein gutes Kind (neut.) - but accusative einen guten Mann, and feminine eine gute Frau.

3. Strong - when there is no article at all (often with plural, with mass nouns, or after viel, etwas, wenig). Now nothing in front shows the case, so the adjective itself takes the full der/die/das-type ending:

guter Wein, kaltes Wasser, frische Milch, dative mit gutem Wein.

Forms & patterns

Weak - after der/die/das, dieser, jeder, alle (adjective gut):

Mixed - after ein/kein/mein (adjective gut). It copies weak everywhere except three spots: nom. masc. ein guter and nom./acc. neut. ein gutes:

(ein has no plural; use kein- or a possessive: keine guten Kinder.)

Strong - no article (adjective gut). The ending copies the definite article: der->-er, das->-es, die->-e, dem->-em, den->-en:

The genitive endings (mostly -en on masc./neut.: guten Weines) come back in lesson 34; for now master nominative, accusative and dative.

Examples

Common mistakes

• ein gutes Mann -> ein guter Mann - after ein (no ending) the adjective must show masculine -er.
• den gute Mann -> den guten Mann - masculine accusative is always -en (weak and mixed).
• mit gut Wein -> mit gutem Wein - no article = strong: the adjective takes the dative -em.
• die gute Kinder -> die guten Kinder - after der-words the plural adjective is always -en.
• ein gut Kind -> ein gutes Kind - neuter after ein needs -es, because ein shows nothing.

Tips

• One question first: is there an article? No article -> strong (adjective gets the der/die/das ending). der/die/das -> weak. ein/kein/mein -> mixed.
• Weak shortcut: after der-words it is -e in five spots (the whole nominative + feminine/neuter accusative) and -en in all the rest. When in doubt, -en is the safer guess.
• Mixed = weak with three repairs: ein guter (nom. masc.), ein gutes (nom. & acc. neut.). Everywhere else, copy the weak forms.
• Strong endings are the article endings: think “the adjective becomes the article” - guter = der, kaltes = das, gutem = dem.

In short

To compare, add -er to the adjective (klein → kleiner) and use als for “than”; for “as … as” use so … wie. The superlative is am -sten when it stands alone (am schönsten) or der/die/das -ste before a noun (der schönste Tag).

The rule

1. Comparative (Komparativ): adjective + -er, and the comparison word is als.

Mein Bruder ist größer als ich. - My brother is taller than me.

Many one-syllable adjectives also take an umlaut (a→ä, o→ö, u→ü):

2. Superlative (Superlativ): two forms with the same meaning.

• Predicative / adverbial: am + adjective + -sten → Im Sommer ist es am schönsten.
• Attributive (before a noun): der/die/das + adjective + -ste (+ normal ending) → der schönste Tag des Jahres.

After -d, -t, -s, -ss, -ß, -z the superlative inserts an extra -e- (→ -esten) to make it pronounceable: am kältesten, am kürzesten. (Exceptions: groß → am größten, gut → am besten.)

3. Equality (Gleichheit): so + adjective (unchanged) + wie.

Sie ist so groß wie ihre Schwester. - She is as tall as her sister.

4. Before a noun, comparatives and superlatives take the normal adjective endings (see lesson 25):

der bessere Wein, mein älterer Bruder, ein schnelleres Auto, die schönsten Tage.

Forms & patterns

Regular & umlaut pattern:

Irregular forms (learn by heart):

Note: hoch drops the c in the comparative (höher), and viel → mehr never adds an ending (mehr Geld, not “mehrer”).

je … desto / umso (the more … the more): the je-clause is a subordinate clause (verb at the end); the desto/umso-clause has the verb in second position right after the comparative.

Je mehr ich lerne, desto besser verstehe ich. - The more I learn, the better I understand.

Examples

Common mistakes

• größer wie ich -> größer als ich - “than” after a comparative is always als, never wie.
• so groß als sie -> so groß wie sie - “as … as” (equality) uses so … wie.
• der gutste / am gutsten -> der beste / am besten - gut is irregular (gut → besser → am besten).
• am schnellesten -> am schnellsten - the extra -e- comes only after -d/-t/-s/-ss/-ß/-z, not after -ll.
• der älter Bruder -> der ältere Bruder - before a noun the comparative still needs an adjective ending.

Tips

• Memory hook: a, o, u (the umlaut vowels) are the ones that often “flip” in short adjectives - alt → älter, groß → größer, jung → jünger.
• Two superlatives, one meaning: use am -sten when nothing follows, and der/die/das -ste when a noun follows.
• Adverbs use only the am -sten form: Er läuft am schnellsten (never “der schnellste” for an action).
• Learn the five irregulars (gut, viel, gern, hoch, nah) as a set - they are extremely frequent.

In short

A reflexive verb comes with a reflexive pronoun that points back to the subject (Ich freue mich = I am glad). The pronoun is accusative by default (mich, dich, sich, uns, euch, sich) and switches to dative (mir, dir, sich…) only when the sentence also has a separate accusative object (Ich wasche mir die Hände). Only the ich/du forms differ between the two cases.

The rule

With a reflexive verb, the subject and the object are the same person: the action “reflects” back. German marks this with a reflexive pronoun that you cannot leave out.

• Accusative reflexive (the normal case). Use it when the pronoun is the only object: Ich freue mich, Er setzt sich, Wir treffen uns.
• Dative reflexive. Use it when there is also a separate accusative object in the sentence. The reflexive pronoun then becomes the indirect “to/for myself”, and the real direct object is a noun: Ich wasche mir die Hände (I wash my hands - lit. “the hands to myself”), Ich kaufe mir ein Auto.

The good news: the two sets are almost identical. Only ich and du change - mich/mir and dich/dir. The form sich does triple duty: it covers er/sie/es, the polite Sie, and every plural (sie = they).

Many verbs are reflexive in German but not in English, so the pronoun has no direct translation: sich erinnern = to remember, sich freuen = to be glad/looking forward, sich interessieren für = to be interested in, sich fühlen = to feel.

Position of the pronoun: in a main clause it stands right after the conjugated verb (and right after the subject when the subject follows the verb): Ich freue mich. / Heute freue ich mich.

Forms & patterns

The reflexive pronouns next to the personal pronouns:

Conjugation pattern with sich freuen (accusative) - the pronoun changes with the subject:

Accusative vs. dative - spot the extra object:

In the imperative, the pronoun follows the verb: Setz dich! (du), Setzt euch! (ihr), Setzen Sie sich! (Sie).

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ich freue. -> Ich freue mich. - the reflexive pronoun is obligatory; you cannot drop it.
• Ich wasche mich die Hände. -> Ich wasche mir die Hände. - with the extra accusative object (die Hände), the reflexive must be dative mir.
• Er interessiert mich für Sport. -> Er interessiert sich für Sport. - the pronoun must match the subject (er -> sich), not stay mich.
• Ich erinnere mich unseren Urlaub. -> Ich erinnere mich an unseren Urlaub. - sich erinnern needs the preposition an + accusative.
• Setz dir! -> Setz dich! - sich setzen is accusative (no second object), so use dich.

Tips

• Memory hook: dative only when a second object steals the accusative. Ich ziehe mich an (acc.) but Ich ziehe mir die Jacke an (dat. + acc. object).
• Learn each verb with its preposition and case as a chunk: sich freuen über/auf (+ Akk.), sich interessieren für (+ Akk.), sich erinnern an (+ Akk.).
• Don’t look for “myself/yourself” in English - many German reflexives translate as a plain verb (sich fühlen = to feel, sich beeilen = to hurry).
• Just memorise the two odd ones - mich/mir and dich/dir. Everywhere else (sich, uns, euch) the accusative and dative look identical.

In short

A subordinate clause (Nebensatz) starts with a subordinating conjunction (weil, dass, wenn, ob) and pushes the conjugated verb to the very end. A comma always joins the two clauses.

The rule

A main clause keeps the verb in second position (V2). A subordinate clause is different: the subordinating conjunction takes the front slot, and the conjugated verb moves to the very end of the clause.

The core A2 conjunctions:

Two clauses, always a comma between them:

Ich bleibe zu Hause, weil ich krank bin. Ich weiß, dass du recht hast. Ich weiß nicht, ob er kommt.

When the subordinate clause comes first, it fills position 1 of the whole sentence, so the main clause must invert: its verb jumps in front of the subject. The result is two verbs meeting at the comma - “verb, verb”:

Wenn es regnet, bleibe ich zu Hause. Weil ich krank bin, bleibe ich zu Hause.

A separable verb does not split in a subordinate clause - the prefix and stem rejoin as one word at the end:

Ich bin müde, weil ich früh aufstehe. (not auf … stehe)

Forms & patterns

Main clause (V2) vs. subordinate clause (verb-final):

Subordinate clause first -> main clause inverts:

With a modal verb or Perfekt, the conjugated verb still ends the clause, after the infinitive or participle:

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ich bleibe zu Hause, weil ich bin krank. -> …, weil ich krank bin. - weil sends the verb to the end (that’s the difference from denn).
• Ich weiß dass du kommst. -> Ich weiß**,** dass du kommst. - never drop the comma before the conjunction.
• Weil ich krank bin, ich bleibe zu Hause. -> …, bleibe ich zu Hause. - after a fronted Nebensatz the main verb comes first (inversion).
• …, weil ich früh auf stehe / stehe … auf. -> …, weil ich früh aufstehe. - separable verbs stay together at the end.
• Ich glaube, das du recht hast. -> …, dass du recht hast. - conjunction is dass (double s), not the article das.
• …, weil ich muss arbeiten. -> …, weil ich arbeiten muss. - the conjugated modal goes last, after the infinitive.

Tips

• Memory hook: a subordinating conjunction “kicks the verb to the end”. Find the verb, drag it to the back.
• weil = denn in meaning, but different grammar: weil is verb-final, denn keeps normal V2 word order (see lesson 17).
• Nebensatz first? Listen for “Verb, Verb” meeting at the comma - that’s your check.
• Use ob (not wenn) for open yes-no questions: Ich frage, ob es regnet (whether), vs. wenn es regnet (if/when it does).

In short

Some verbs take TWO objects at once: a dative (the receiver, usually a person) and an accusative (the thing). The big rule is word order: two nouns go dative before accusative, but a pronoun always jumps to the front.

The rule

A group of “giving / communicating” verbs describes giving something to someone. The person who receives is in the dative; the thing that is given, shown or said is in the accusative:

Ich gebe dem Kind (dat) einen Apfel (acc). - I give the child an apple. Er erklärt mir (dat) die Grammatik (acc). - He explains the grammar to me.

The word order of the two objects follows three simple rules:

Memory trick: a pronoun is “lighter”, so it moves left. When both are pronouns, the order flips to accusative-before-dative. Note: these double-object verbs are different from the pure dative verbs (helfen, danken, gefallen - lesson 20), which take only a dative, and from the majority of verbs, which take only an accusative.

Forms & patterns

Common verbs with dative + accusative:

Pronoun reminder (from lesson 22) - the two object pronouns you combine:

Dative article forms (the receiver): dem (m/n), der (f), den …-n (pl): Ich gebe den Kindern den Ball.

Examples

Common mistakes

• Ich gebe das Buch dem Mann. -> Ich gebe dem Mann das Buch. - with two nouns, dative comes before accusative.
• Ich gebe dem Mann ihn. -> Ich gebe ihn ihm. (or: Ich gebe es dem Mann.) - a pronoun must move in front of the noun; two pronouns go accusative before dative.
• Ich gebe ihm es. -> Ich gebe es ihm. - when both are pronouns, the accusative pronoun comes first.
• Ich erkläre dich die Regel. -> Ich erkläre dir die Regel. - the person/receiver is dative (dir), not accusative.
• Ich schenke dich ein Buch. -> Ich schenke dir ein Buch. - same trap: the receiver is always dative.

Tips

• Ask yourself: “to whom?” = dative (the person), “what?” = accusative (the thing). The receiver is almost always a person.
• Two nouns: keep the natural order person then thing (dative -> accusative). Easy to remember.
• A pronoun is “light” and slides to the front. With two pronouns, flip to accusative -> dative (“es ihm”, “ihn dir”).
• Watch out for erklären, empfehlen, schenken: English uses “explain/recommend/give” without “to”, but German still puts the person in the dative.

In short

Pointing words say which one. dieser/diese/dieses (this) decline exactly like the definite article (dieser Mann, diese Frau, dieses Kind, diesen Mann, diesem Bus). The article der/die/das can also stand alone as a stressed demonstrative meaning “that one / him / her / that”: Der gefällt mir! Its forms match the article except dative plural denen and genitive dessen/deren.

The rule

Demonstratives point at something: this book versus that book, or simply this one.

• dieser, diese, dieses = this / these. It is the everyday “pointing” word and takes the same endings as the definite article (a so-called der-word). Whatever ending der/die/das/den/dem has, put it on the stem dies-: dieser Mann, diese Frau, dieses Kind, acc. diesen Mann, dat. diesem Bus.
• jener, jene, jenes = that (over there). It declines like dieser, but in modern German it sounds formal or literary. In normal speech, “that one” is der/die/das da or just dieser.
• The article as a stressed pronoun. The definite article der/die/das can stand on its own, stressed, replacing a noun: Der gefällt mir! (That one I like!), Den kenne ich nicht (I don’t know him / that one), Die da bitte (That one there, please), Das weiß ich nicht (That I don’t know). This is very common in speech. Its forms are the same as the article except: dative plural denen (not den) and the genitive forms dessen / deren.
• Stressed vs. unstressed der. The same word der is unstressed as an article (der Mann = the man) but stressed and accented as a demonstrative standing alone (Der ist nett = That guy is nice). Stress and position (usually first in the sentence) tell them apart.
• A few more pointing words: solch- = such (solche Bücher, so ein Tag); derselbe/dieselbe/dasselbe = the same; derjenige/diejenige/dasjenige = the one (who), usually before a relative clause.

Forms & patterns

dieser (this) - declines like the definite article. The same table works for jener and solcher: